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Written by Hafssa Fakher Elabiari. In this article, I shed light on the intricacies of an illicit industry: Captagon. I specifically explore how, despite being located in the Middle East, the Captagon industry has become a threat to human and national security beyond the region, particularly in North Africa and Europe. Yet, before tackling these pressing questions, I firstly provide a brief historical overview of Captagon. Fenethylline, commercialized as Captagon, is an amphetamine-derived psychostimulant that affects the central nervous system and improves cognitive abilities El Khoury, Captagon is principally composed of amphetamine and caffeine, and it is an internationally-recognized illegal drug UNODC, In , a German pharmaceutical company first introduced Captagon to treat health conditions like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, depression, and narcolepsy Katselou et al. In , the legal production of Captagon stopped, and in , the drug was added to the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances. In fact, anti-drug law enforcement measures in Europe helped shift the synthesis of Captagon from Europe to the Middle East Laniel et al. The latter was an easy recipient, due to the lack of anti-narcotic law enforcement, existing conflicts, and high demand for recreational drugs. Captagon is now primarily produced in Syria and Lebanon, and allegedly, to a lesser extent, in Jordan, where one facility was dismantled in UNODC, In the Middle East, the Captagon scene is nothing but complex. In fact, a myriad of state and non-state actors are involved, and the prevalence of conflicts and impunity creates fertile soil for the production and smuggling of Captagon. However, it is easier to portray the Captagon picture if one keeps in mind that the regional backers of the Assad regime are part of the Captagon network Vohra, In , the European Union EU , the United States, and other Western countries imposed the first batch of sanctions on the Syrian regime to disrupt its access to funds and halt its repression. In this context, and although Iran and Russia have proven to be reliable allies for Assad, their support was essential, but not sufficient. Former US special envoy for Syria, Joel Rayburn, confirms that the revenues generated from Captagon allow Assad to survive, describing its regime a cartel Diehl et al. To understand how the Syrian regime and its close allies benefit from Captagon, it is essential to comprehend some intricacies of the Syrian war. Hence, these developments demonstrate that there is, indeed, a network of actors behind the illicit industry, and the latter is primarily composed of the Assad regime, powerful pro-Assad narco-entrepreneurs, and the Lebanese Hezbollah Vohra, Maher is an incredibly powerful army commander, who built a network of businessmen in various domains, from cigarettes to steel Dagher, , p. He stemmed his power from controlling the army and a large portion of the business sector. Moreover, Maher is the commander of the Fourth Division, an army branch that protects the regime from major threats, and is supported by Iran and Hezbollah Alghadawi, Indeed, Captagon factories are principally located in regime-controlled areas, such as Latakia, Homs, Daraa, Aleppo, and which are close to the Syrian-Lebanese border Rose, After Assad, Hezbollah is also a major actor in the Captagon industry and maintains strong ties with Syrian actors, notably the Fourth Division. In Lebanon, Hezbollah is the most powerful political and military actor, and it controls parts of the capital, the south, and the Bekaa Valley Robinson, Parenthetically, there is no de facto border between the Bekaa and the Syrian city of Homs, which facilitates the traffic of people and weapons, but also of drugs Khatib, In fact, there is solid evidence that Captagon is produced in Bekaa Popoviciu, The Hezbollah-controlled region has a history of producing Cannabis, and the Lebanese government has failed to curb the trend Felbab-Brown, The reasons behind the proliferation of Captagon in Lebanon are manifold. For example, the fact that Iran offers tremendous patronage to Hezbollah gives the latter significant clout in Lebanon and at the regional level. Clarifying, Hezbollah is an instrument used by the Iranian regime to expand its influence in predominantly-Arab states Robinson, For that, Tehran provides military and financial support to the Shiite militant group. The fact that Iran stands behind Hezbollah grants immunity to the non-state actor, when it comes to Captagon and other illicit activities. Khatib, Also, the ongoing political crisis in Lebanon erodes the state power, which makes the country more vulnerable to illicit businesses. In Lebanon, the primary reason why the state fails in different sectors is the prevalence of fasad Arabic term referring to corruption, nepotism, and clientelism , which is correlated with the spread of poverty, because it forces some people to take part in the Captagon industry, to earn a living. Also, the fasad is the same force that gives Hezbollah carte blanche when it comes to synthesizing and smuggling Captagon Felbab-Brown, The proliferation of Captagon in the Middle East negatively impacts diplomatic and trade relations between Gulf countries and Lebanon. Customs authorities are not capable of cutting the flow of Captagon for various reasons, including the porosity of certain border e. The Gulf region is a relevant case, because some of its countries are the primary consumers of Captagon. Stopping imports, especially during the agony that Lebanon is going through, is only making matters worse for the Lebanese government. However, it is clear that ceasing imports is not an effective strategy for Saudi Arabia, as the Kingdom is only treating the symptom of a larger problem: Captagon addiction among the youth. Here, it remains difficult to have a close estimate of addiction rates, due to the fact that religious norms prohibit the consumption of drugs. To illustrate, the known rehabilitation centres are located outside Saudi Arabia, including in Jordan and Thailand e. Of course, Saudi Arabia is not the only country that records addiction cases. Jordan, for instance, is leading a fierce fight against amphetamine smugglers. In early , its army killed 27 smugglers and wounded several others, when they attempted to enter Syria Al-Khalidi, Captagon is a threat to human security, but it is also a threat to national security, especially in European and African countries, some of which have become regular destinations for this drug. In July , the Italian police seized 14 tons of Captagon, the equivalent of 84 million tablets, in Salerno Diehl et al. The drugs came from Syria, but were erroneously attributed to the so-called Islamic State. Recently, the list of Captagon destinations expanded to Africa. In January , the Lebanese authorities intercepted a seven-ton tea-concealed shipment in the direction of Saudi Arabia through Togo The National, It is difficult to state all the seizures because the list goes on to cover countries in North Africa, as well. Post Libya, for instance, has recently become a transit country for Captagon knowing that it is already used by Cannabis smugglers for its strategic position. Various factors enforce Libya as a transit country for drugs, mainly its strategic position in the Mediterranean, its instability, and the presence of warlords who benefit from the drug trade Ahmad, Captagon is usually shipped from Latakia port to Libyan coastal cities like Benghazi and Tobruk. The smuggling takes place in products manufactured by companies close to the Assad regime Ahmad, Hence, when drugs successfully enter Libya, a relatively small quantity flows internally, while larger quantities are smuggled to neighbouring Egypt and other Sahel countries, along with other European countries, like Italy Ahmad, These developments highlight the amplitude of the Captagon threat in the region. It should be noted that the Captagon network extends to Europe, particularly Germany. There are individuals who allegedly work for the Assad regime and who happen to either constantly live in Germany, or to move between the latter and other countries, like Lebanon and Turkey Diehl et al. A common denominator between these people is the influence they had acquired in Syria by holding powerful positions and being close to the regime Diehl et al. Consequently, Damascus remained a member state, but stopped benefiting from access to intelligence that Interpol provides and the ability to arrest people overseas Rose, In October , however, Interpol lifted the measures, stating that the decision stems from its rules, rather than events happening in Syria Interpol, Al-Raisi was appointed in November , one month after the cancellation of corrective measures against Syria. Yet, the appointment of Al-Raisi, amid allegations that happen to come from well-reputed sources, shows that Interpol can, sometimes, lack impartiality. Second, Syria started engaging in a process of rapprochement with the UAE. In March , Assad even paid a diplomatic visit to the UAE to strengthen bilateral ties, the first official visit to an Arab country since the eruption of the war in Third, Syria has become aware that international attention on Captagon might put it in a difficult position. Consequently, the regime started conducting Captagon seizures on a regular basis to conceal its blatant involvement in narcotics. It even organized a seminar on the International anti-drug day June 26th and claimed that it would organize anti-drug campaigns in the country to send signs of goodwill to foreign countries Rose, However, these attempts would not work because Captagon and the Assad regime have become inseparable. This move cancels the efforts made by several countries to curb the smuggling of Captagon. At the same time, it does no good to the Syrian people who have witnessed the whole spectrum of atrocities and contributes to the prolongation of an already long and brutal war. While this is essential, it is not enough to solve the problem of Captagon. Indeed, the high demand is the main driver for such an exorbitant supply. If, for example, Kuwaiti people lower their consumption, Kuwait would no longer be an attractive destination for Captagon producers and smugglers. Of course, domestic initiatives should also normalize seeking rehabilitation treatment, away from judgment and stigma. In a typical scenario, MENA and European countries especially southern ones should merge their efforts for visible results. To conclude, Captagon is a by-product of unaccountability and the lust for power. Just like every drug industry, there are beneficiaries and victims. The Assad regime and Hezbollah have transformed Syria into a narco-state, just to generate funds Keating, Additionally, it has tarnished commercial relations between Saudi Arabia and Lebanon, a country on the verge of chaos. The Captagon industry is meant to stay, as long as the Assad regime is in power and his foreign backers perceive Syria as their backyard. Consequently, to stop the production of Captagon in Syria and Lebanon is, in the short term, quasi-impossible. What is possible, however, is to contain the threat that Captagon poses, which can solely be achieved through collective effort from countries and international organizations, i. It should also keep in mind that the war in Syria is, first and foremost, a human tragedy. Your email address will not be published. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Introduction In this article, I shed light on the intricacies of an illicit industry: Captagon. Who is behind Captagon? Also, the fasad is the same force that gives Hezbollah carte blanche when it comes to synthesizing and smuggling Captagon Felbab-Brown, Repercussions of Captagon The proliferation of Captagon in the Middle East negatively impacts diplomatic and trade relations between Gulf countries and Lebanon. Conclusion To conclude, Captagon is a by-product of unaccountability and the lust for power. References Ahmad, S. The New Arab. Al-Khalidi, S. Alalwani, W. Middle East Institute. Aldassouky, A. Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies. Alghadawi, A. Ashour, A. Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project. Bamofleh, E. Scholars Report. Basalom, B. The National News. Diehl, J. Der Spiegel. El Khoury, J. Felbab-Brown, V. The Battle against Captagon. Chatham House. The Syrian Observer. Hubbard, B. The New York Times. Operation Lionfish. Katselou, M. Keating, J. Khatib, L. Laniel, L. Lebanon, Kuwait agree to cooperate after Captagon drug bust. Lister, C. Official Journal of the European Union. Popoviciu, A. Middle East Eye. Robinson, K. What is Hezbollah?. Council on Foreign Relations. Rose, C. Foreign Policy. July 19, Newsline Institute. Sallon, H. Le Monde. Saquib, N. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy , 15 Spencer, R. Pomegranate used to smuggle amphetamine pills from Lebanon. The Sunday Times. The Carter Center. The National. Lebanon seizes Captagon hidden in tea heading for Saudi Arabia. Department of State. Syria Sanctions. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Is Captagon fenethylline helping to fuel the Syrian conflict? Addiction , 4 , — Vohra, A. Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published.
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A search and rescue operation off the coast of the eastern Greek island of Samos recovered the bodies of two people reported missing overnight after a boat carrying 24 migrants ran into trouble in rough weather, the coast guard said Monday. By The Associated Press. ATHENS, Greece — A search and rescue operation off the coast of the eastern Greek island of Samos recovered the bodies of two people reported missing overnight after a boat carrying 24 migrants ran into trouble in rough weather, the coast guard said Monday. The sinking is the latest deadly accident involving migrants trying to make their way into the European Union using the sea route either from the nearby Turkish coast or across the Mediterranean from North Africa. Authorities said they received a distress call from the passengers on the vessel and a coast guard patrol boat located the vessel, semi-submerged, north of Samos. Twenty-two people were rescued, and survivors alerted the coast guard to the two missing passengers. The bodies of the missing — a man and a woman — were recovered in the early hours of Monday, the coast guard said. In another three incidents Sunday, more than migrants reached Greece's eastern Aegean Sea islands in small boats from Turkey, according to the coast guard. Last week, two women and two children died off the eastern Greek island of Kos when a smuggling boat crossing from nearby Turkey capsized. A further 27 people were rescued. In a separate incident a few days later, one man died, two people were reported missing and 97 were rescued by a passing cargo ship in the Mediterranean south of Greece's southernmost island of Gavdos. Survivors told authorities they had paid between 7, and 10, euros each for the passage from the northern Libyan port of Tobruk to Greece. Greece lies on a popular route into the European Union for people fleeing war and poverty in Africa, Asia and the Middle East, with tens of thousands heading to Greek islands, usually in smuggling boats from the nearby Turkish coast, or making the longer and more treacherous journey across the Mediterranean from North Africa. More than 44, migrants were registered as having arrived in Greece by mid-October, with the vast majority arriving by sea, according to figures from the United Nations refugee agency. China is holding live-fire drills off the coast of its southern Fujian province facing Taiwan, just a week after a massive air-and-sea drill it called punishment for Taiwan's president rejecting Beijing's claims of sovereignty. At dawn, pilgrims like Ernesto Troya undertook the hardest stretch of their journey to reach the statue of the Black Christ of Portobelo in Panama. Moved by faith, they crawled for several hours along the street toward the image of the saint. Tropical Storm Oscar was heading toward the Bahamas late Monday after dumping heavy rain across eastern Cuba. The Latest. October 21, at PM. More from World See More. World China holds live-fire drills opposite Taiwan, a week after large-scale exercise The Associated Press.
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