Theoretical aspects of degrees comparison. Comparativa analysis of degrees of comparison - Иностранные языки и языкознание курсовая работа

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Theoretical aspects of degrees comparison. Comparativa analysis of degrees of comparison

The pillars of any degree of comparison. Morphological composition of the adjectives. An introduction on degrees of comparison. Development and stylistic potential of degrees of comparison. General notes on comparative analysis. Contrastive linguistics.


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CHAPTER I . THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Language is the means by which we are enabled to understand the thoughts, feelings, and desires of others. Language contains individual sounds, signs, or words for all man's thoughts, feelings, and desires. This is why language is the spiritual heritage and treasure of a nation through which all the thoughts, feelings, and desires the people have experienced in the past are unlocked and released through words and sounds to be handed down as something sacred from one generation to another. Language is the biggest treasure of every nation.
In the first chapter of this research work we have investigated the theoretical and linguistic information about both, degrees of comparison in English and Romanian. In the first subchapter we gathered some information about adjectives and adverbs, their classification into several groups, the functions they posses as we cannot imagine the degrees of comparison without adjective and adverbs. They are the pillars of any process of comparison. Then we collected some information about the degrees of comparison in English and Romanian.
The ability to establish orderings among objects and make comparisons between them according to the amount or degree to which they possess some property is a basic component of human cognition. Languages re?ect this fact: all languages have syntactic categories that express gradable concepts, and all languages have designated comparative constructions, which are used to express orderings between two objects with respect to the degree or amount to which they possess some property. English and Romanian is not an exception.
1.1 The pillars of any degree of comparison
Comparison is the act of comparing one thing to another, in order to determine similarities and differences, relative size, relative importance, and so on. It may specifically refer to computer science, for example: file comparison, the automatic comparison of file data by a computer program, or comparison (computer programming), code that makes decisions and selects alternatives based on them, and comparison sort, a type of data sort used in computer programming.
Also, the process of comparison may refer to language: comparison (grammar), a feature of many languages, degree of comparison, an English language grammatical feature and mass comparison, a test for the relatedness of languages. [Dekeyser, Xavier p. 449.]
Comparison , in grammar , is a property of adjectives and adverbs in most languages; it describes systems that distinguish the degree to which the modifier modifies its complement.
As I have mentioned above we cannot imagine any process of comparison without adjectives and adverbs. Only with the help of them we can compare things, phenomenon or persons. These components of degrees of comparison are the most important ones. We also may use the degrees of comparison to emphasize that an object is superior or inferior compared to another object. In this case we use adjectives, which are 'describing' words, the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun, giving more information about the object signified.
We may also use adverbs, which is usually defined as a word expressing either property of an action or property of circumstances in which an action occurs.
The adjective expresses the categorial semantics of property of a substance. It means that each adjective used in the text presupposes relation to some noun the property of whose referent it denotes, such as its material, colour, dimensions, position, state, and other characteristics both permanent and temporary.
In grammar, an adjective is a 'describing' word; the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified. Adjectives are one of the traditional eight English parts of speech, though linguists today distinguish adjectives from words such as determiners that were formerly considered to be adjectives. [ Biber Douglas, p 59]
Morphological composition of the adjectives
Adjectives are divided into simple, derivative and compound.
Simple adjectives are adjectives, which have neither prefixes nor suffixes. They are indecomposable: good, red, black
Derivative adjectives are adjectives which have derivative elements, suffixes or prefixes or both: beautiful, foolish, hopeless, unkind, unimportant.
Compound adjective are adjectives build from two or more stems. The main types of compound adjectives are as following:
Noun-stem + adjective-stem: snow-white;
Noun-stem+ participle stem: life-giving, smoke dried;
Adjective-stem + adjective-stem: deaf-mute;
Adjective-stem + noun-stem + suffix “-ed”: cold-hearted;
Noun-stem + noun-stem + suffix “-ed”: lynx-eyed;
Numeral-stem + noun-stem + suffix “-ed”: four-wheeled;
Adverb-stem + noun-stem + suffix “-ed”: over-peopled;
According to their meaning and grammatical characteristics adjectives fall under two classes: [Bloch M.Y., p.330]
1) qualitative adjectives - denote qualities of a substance directly, not through it's relation to another substance, as size, shape, colour, physical and mental qualities, qualities of general estimation; little, large, high, soft, hard, warm, white, blue, strong, bold, beautiful, important, necessary, etc.
Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives
- Most qualitative adjective have degrees of comparison: big bigger the biggest; interesting more interesting, the most interesting. Some qualitative adjective such as greenish, darkish, incurable, unsuitable, chief, principal have no degrees of comparison.
- They have certain typical suffixes such as - full, -less, -ous, -ent, -able, -y, -ish: careful, careless, dangerous, convenient, comfortable, silvery, watery, whitish.
- From most of them adverbs can be formed by the suffix -ly: graceful- gracefully
- Most qualitative adjectives can be used as Attributes and Predicatives.
How lovely the little river is, with its dark, changing waves! (Attributes)
But you're nearly as old as I am. ( Predicatives)
2) relative adjectives - denote qualities of a substance through their relation to materials ( silken, woollen, wooden), to place ( Italian, Asia), to time (monthly, weekly), to some action ( preparatory, rotatory)
Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives
- Relative adjectives have no degrees of comparison
They do not form adverbs with the suffix -ly.
They have certain typical suffixes such as -en, -an, -ist, -ic, -ical: wooden, Italian, socialist, synthetic, analytical.
Relative adjectives are chiefly used as Attributes: She was a fair example of the Middle American class.
A given occurrence of an adjective can generally be classified into one of four kinds of uses:
* Attributive adjectives are part of the noun phrase headed by the noun they modify; for example, happy is an attributive adjective in "happy people". In some languages, attributive adjectives precede their nouns; in others, they follow their nouns; and in yet others, it depends on the adjective, or on the exact relationship of the adjective to the noun. In English, attributive adjectives usually precede their nouns in simple phrases, but often follow their nouns when the adjective is modified or qualified by a phrase acting as an adverb.
"I saw three kids happy enough to jump up and down with glee."
* Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or pronoun they modify.
* Absolute adjectives do not belong to a larger construction (aside from a larger adjective phrase), and typically modify either the subject of a sentence or whatever noun or pronoun they are closest to.
Example: "The boy, happy with his lollipop, did not look where he was going."
*Nominal adjectives act almost as nouns. One way this can happen is if a noun is elided and an attributive adjective is left behind. In the sentence, "I read two books to them; he preferred the sad book, but she preferred the happy", happy is a nominal adjective, short for "happy one" or "happy book". Another way this can happen is in phrases like "out with the old, in with the new", where "the old" means, "that which is old" or "all that is old", and similarly with "the new". In such cases, the adjective functions either as a mass noun (as in the preceding example) or as a plural count noun, as in "The meek shall inherit the Earth", where "the meek" means "those who are meek" or "all who are meek".
There are 2 basic positions for adjectives: [Declerck, Renaat, p.595]
b) after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste)
We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun:
She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.
What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?
1. The general order is: opinion, fact : (Opinion is what you think about something. "Fact" is what is definitely true about something.)
Example: A nice French car (not a French nice car)
2. The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, colour, material, origin :
Example: A big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table
3. Determiners usually come first , even though they are fact adjectives:
quantifiers (some, any, few, many...)
When we want to use two colour adjectives , we join them with "and":
Examples: Many newspapers are black and white .
She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress.
An adjective can come after some verbs, such as: be, become, feel, get, look, seem, smell, sound
Even when an adjective comes after the verb and not before a noun, it always refers to and qualifies the subject of the sentence, not the verb.
Because she had to wait, she became impatient .
The examination did not seem difficult .
These verbs are "stative" verbs, which express a state or change of state, not "dynamic" verbs which express an action. Note that some verbs can be stative in one sense (she looks beautiful | it got hot), and dynamic in another (she looked at him | he got the money)
An adverb is a part of speech that changes the meaning of a verb or any part of speech other than nouns (modifiers of nouns are primarily adjectives and determiners). Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives (including numbers), clauses, sentences, and other adverbs. Adverbs typically answer questions such as : how?; in what way?; when?; where?; and to what extent?. [Maetzner, Eduard Adolf Ferdinand, p.124]
We make many adverbs by adding “ -ly” to an adjective, for example:
Examples : quick (adjective) = quickly (adverb)
careful (adjective) = carefully (adverb)
beautiful (adjective) = beautifully (adverb)
a) According to word formation, adverbs fall into two groups:
simple adverbs and derivative adverbs. * Simple adverbs Ѓ@Simple adverbs are those that consist of only one free morpheme; they are mostly identical in form with corresponding adjectives, e.g. hard, clean, right, slow, etc.
* Derivative adverbs Derivative adverbs are those that are derived from adjectives by adding the suffix -ly, e.g. carefully, slowly, hardly, politely, considerably, constantly, shortly, etc.
b) Semantically , adverbs can be divided into:
Adverbs of time, place , manner, degree, and mood * Adverbs of time Ѓ@Adverbs of time answer the question "When…", "How long…", and "How often…?" once, always, again, often, daily, seldom, frequently, sometimes, occasionally, etc.
With words like daily we know exactly how often. On the other hand, words like often give us an idea about frequency but they don't tell us exactly. We separate them into two groups because they normally go in different positions in the sentence.
Adverbs of definite frequency tell us exactly how often this or that action will take place.
Examples: hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly
every second, once a minute, twice a year
once, twice, once or twice, three times
Adverbs of definite frequency, like all adverbs of definite time, typically go in END position.
Examples: Most companies pay taxes yearly .
The manager checks the toilets every hour .
The directors meet weekly to review progress.
Sometimes, usually for reasons of emphasis or style, some adverbs of definite frequency may go at the FRONT.
Example: Every day , more than five thousand people die on our roads.
Adverbs of indefinite frequency give us an idea about frequency, but they don't tell us exactly.
Examples: never, seldom, sometimes, often, always
Adverbs of indefinite frequency mainly go in MID position in the sentence. They go before the main verb (except the main verb "to be"):
Examples: We usually go shopping on Saturday.
Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or end of a sentence:
Examples: Sometimes they come and stay with us.
Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"):
* Adverbs of place Adverbs of place answer the question "Where…", here, inside, upstairs, abroad, everywhere, up, down, etc.
* Adverbs of manner Adverbs of manner answer the question "How…?" carefully, slowly, beautifully, undoubtedly, surprisingly, admiringly, etc
* Adverbs of degree Adverbs of degree answer the question "To what degree or extent…?" Negative: not, little, scarcely, hardly, etc. Slight degree: a little slightly, somewhat, rather, etc. Great degree: much, very, far, greatly, extremely, etc. Excessive degree: exceedingly, too, too much, etc. Completeness: quite, wholly, entirely, thoroughly, etc. Sufficiency: enough, exactly, etc. Deficiency: almost, nearly, partly, etc. Limitation: only, simply, but, etc
Adverbs of degree are often used to modify comparatives and superlatives
Example: This is much ( far, somewhat, little, decidedly ) better than that.
*Adverbs of mood (Modal adverbs) Modal adverbs are used to show whether an assertion is true, doubtful or not doubtful. Modal adverbs are, in form, like adverbs of manner, but they modify the whole sentence.
Example: Certainly you are in the right.
Adverbs expressing certainty include certainly, surely, really,
Adverbs expressing doubt: probably, likely, perhaps, maybe, possibly, etc.
A) When an adverb modifies a verb, there are usually 3 possible positions within the sentence or clause: [Meyer-Myklestad, p.627]
When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it usually goes in front of the word that it modifies.
Examples: She gave him a really dirty look.
1.2 An introduction on degrees of comparison
Comparison is the act of comparing one thing to another, in order to determine similarities and differences, relative size, relative importance, and so on. It may specifically refer to computer science, for example: file comparison, the automatic comparison of file data by a computer program, or comparison (computer programming), code that makes decisions and selects alternatives based on them, and comparison sort, a type of data sort used in computer programming.
Also, the process of comparison may refer to language: comparison (grammar), a feature of many languages, degree of comparison, an English language grammatical feature and mass comparison, a test for the relatedness of languages. [Dekeyser, Xavier p. 449.]
Comparison , in grammar , is a property of adjectives and adverbs in most languages; it describes systems that distinguish the degree to which the modifier modifies its complement.
English, has two parallel systems of comparison. [Kolln, Martha J.; Funk, Robert W, p. 453]
The first system involves the suffixes -er (the "comparative") and -est (the "superlative"). These inflections are of Germanic origin. They are typically added to shorter words, words of Anglo-Saxon origin, and borrowed words that have been fully assimilated into the English vocabulary. Usually the words that take these inflections have fewer than three syllables. This system contains a number of irregular forms, some of which, like good, better, best, contain suppletive forms.
The second system of comparison in English appends the grammatical particles more and most, themselves the irregular comparatives of many, to the adjective or adverb being modified. This series can be compared to a system containing the diminutives less and least.
This system is most commonly used with words of French or Latin derivation; adjectives and adverbs formed with suffixes other than -ly (e.g.beautiful); and with longer, technical, or infrequently used words. Knowing which words fall into which system is a highly idiomatic issue in English syntax. Some words require the suffixing system; taller is required; more tall is not idiomatic English.
Some words (e.g. difficult) require more and most. Some words (e.g. polite) can be used with either system; curiously, while polite can go either way, the derived word impolite requires more and most.
The general rule is that words with one syllable require the suffix, words with three or more syllables require more or most and words with two syllables can go either way. [Quirk, Randolph, p. 1779.]
There are Grammarians, as Max Morenberg, Otto Jespersen Otto and James E. Augerot, who classify the adjectives in a original way. It this system belong and so-called "absolute" adjectives , adjectives that logically do not seem to admit of comparison. There are many such adjectives -- generally adjectives that name qualities that are either present or absent: nothing is "more igneous" than anything else. Other examples include perfect, unique, and parallel, which name qualities that are inherently superlative: if something is perfect, there can be nothing better, so it does not make sense to describe one thing as *"more perfect" than something else; if something is unique, it is one of a kind, so something cannot be "very unique", or *"more unique" than something else.
1.3 Development and changes of adjectives and degrees of comparison
Originally, adjectives differed from nouns only in meaning and syntactic use but not graphically:
Examples: lat. lupus ( n. `wolf') - bonus (adj. `good'), aqua (n. `water') - bona (adj. `good').
In Old English, whose usage covered a period of approximately 700 years - from the Anglo-Saxon migrations that created England in the 5 th century to some time after the Norman Conquest of 1066 the adjective could change for number, gender and case.
Like nouns, adjectives had three genders (masculine, neuter, and feminine) and two numbers (singular and plural). The category of case in adjectives differed from that of nouns: in addition to four cases of nouns (Nominative, Genitive, Accusative and Dative) they had one more case, Instrumental. It was used when the adjective served as an attribute to a noun in the Dative case expressing an instrumental meaning: l?tel werede (`with (the help of) a small troop').[ Strang, Barbara M. H., p.93]
Like adjectives in other languages, most OE adjectives distinguished between three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative. The regular means used to form the comparative and superlative from the positive were the suffixes -ra and -est/-ost. Sometimes suffixation was accompanied by an interchange of the root-vowel. Besides that, some adjectives had suppletive forms of degrees of comparison. Several examples of comparison of adjectives in Old English are given in chart 1.
Chart 1. Comparison of Adjectives in Old English
As follows from the Chart 1, those adjectives, which have the suffix -ost in the superlative degree, have the same root-vowel in all forms with the exception of the adjectives with the root-vowel -ж-. In the superlative degree it alternates with the root-vowel -a- before the back vowel in the suffix -ost: ?lжd - ?ladost.
However, some linguists say that, since ?lжd refers to the words which used to form their degrees of comparison by adding the suffixes -ora and -ost, it had no vowel interchange: ?lжd - ?lжdra - ?lжdost.
Degrees of comparison with -mest are generally derived from adverbs but they function as adjectives. We can see several examples in Chart 2.
The degrees of comparison is the only set of forms which the adjective has preserved through all historical periods. However, the means employed to build up the forms of the degrees of comparison have considerably altered.
In Middle English the degrees of comparison could be built in the same way as in Old English - by adding the suffixes to the form of the positive degree (sometimes suffixation was accompanied by an interchange of the root-vowel; a few adjectives had suppletive forms). But the comparative degree suffix -ra had been weakened to -er; afterwards, the final unstressed -e disappears completely and before -r we find a weak vowel, i.e. -ra > -re > -r > -er. As a result of weakening of an unstressed vowel, the OE suffix -ost coincided in Middle English with the suffix -est.
The new system of comparisons emerged at the end of the Middle English period. To form the comparative and superlative degrees they began to use such words as more and most. But the ground for this method had already been prepared by the use of the OE adverbs mв, bet, betst, swоpor - `more', `better', `to a greater degree' with adjectives and participles. It is noteworthy that in Middle English the phrases with more and most became popular and were used with all kinds of adjectives, regardless of the number of syllables and were even preferred with mono- and disyllabic words. [Curme, George O, p33]
1.4 Degrees of comparison in English
In English grammar the degree of comparison of an adjective or adverb describes the relational value of one thing with something in another clause of a sentence. An adjective may simply describe a quality, (the positive); it may compare the quality with that of another of its kind (comparative degree); and it may compare the quality with many or all others (superlative degree).
The degree of comparison may be expressed morphologically, or syntactically. In English, for example, most monosyllabic and some disyllabic adjectives have morphological degrees of comparison: green (positive), greener (comparative), greenest( superlative), while most polysyllabic adjectives use syntax: complex, more complex, most complex. [Biber, Douglas, p. 203]
There are three Degrees of Comparison in English.
They are: * Positive degree. * Comparative degree .
The positive degree is the most basic form of the adjective, because it does not relate to any superior or inferior qualities of other things in speech. We use it when we speak about only one person or thing. Examples: * This house is big . * He is a tall student. In these sentences only one nouns “The house” and “student” are talked about.
Some linguists approach the number of the degrees of comparison as problematic on the grounds that the basic form of the adjective does not express any comparison by itself and there-fore should be excluded from the category. This exclusion would reduce the category to two members only: the comparative and superlative.
However, the oppositional interpretation of grammatical categories underlying our considerations does not admit of such an exclusion; on the contrary, the non-expression of superiority by the basic form is understood in the oppositional presentation of comparison as a pre-requisite for the expression of the category as such. In this expression of the category the basic form is the unmarked member, not distinguished by any comparison suffix or comparison auxiliary, while the superiority forms (the comparative and superlative) are the marked members, distinguished by the comparison suffixes or comparison auxiliaries.
There are grammarians who say that there are two more comparisons with the `positive form' of the adjective words. [Bryant, Margaret, p. 326.]
This comparison is used to compare two persons, animals or things to tell us that they are equal - having the same quality.
There are two cats with the same height and weight, and look the same except for the colour.
The brown cat is as beautiful as the grey cat. ( Both the cats are the same.)
The word “beautiful” is an adjective in the `positive form', and with the conjunction ” as…as” it expresses the `degree of equality'.
This comparison is used to compare two persons, animals or things to tell us that they are not equal - not having the same quality.
The brown cat is not so beautiful as the black and white cat. (They are not the same.)
The word “beautiful” is an adjective in the `positive form', and with the conjunction “so…as” (and the negative `not') it expresses the `degree of inequality'
In grammar, the comparative is the form of an adjective or adverb which denotes the degree or grade by which a person, thing, or other entity has a property or quality greater or less in extent than that of another, and is used in this context with a subordinating conjunction, such as than, as...as. [ John Sinclair, p. 145]
The structure of a comparative in English consists normally of the positive form of the adjective or adverb, plus the suffix -er, or (in the case of polysyllabic words borrowed from foreign languages) the modifier more (or less/fewer) before the adjective or adverb.
Example: wise, wiser , wisest bold, bolder , boldest
The form is usually completed by than and the noun which is being compared.
Example: He is taller than his father
The village is less picturesque than the town nearby.
Than is used as a subordinating conjunction to introduce the second element of a comparative sentence while the first element expresses the difference.
There are two more degrees of comparison with the `comparative form' of an adjective. They are:
This comparison is used to show that the qualities of two items (adjectives or adverbs) talked about in the given sentence go parallel. If one quality (adjective or adverb) increases, the other quality (adjective or adverb) increases, and if one quality decreases, the other quality also decreases. [Chalker, Sylvia; Weiner, Edmund, p. 464.]
Example: The bigger the box, the heavier it is.
This comparison is used to show that the quality of a thing (adjective or adverb) talked about in the given sentence increases as the time passes, for example:
25° > 27° > 30° > 33°> 35° > 38° > 40°
Example: It's getting hotter and hotter day by day. (As the time passes the temperature increases.)
For sentences with the two clauses other two-part comparative subordinating conjunctions may be used : [Thomson, A. J, p 356]
The house was as large as two put together.
The coat of paint is not as [ not so ] fresh as it used to be.
This car is the same size as the old one.
It cost me more to rent than I had hoped.
In English, adverbs are usually formed by adding -ly to the end of an adjective. In the comparative, more (or less) is added before the adverb.
Example: This sofa seats three people more comfortably than the other one.
Some irregular adverbs such as fast or hard do not use more, but add an -er suffix, as the adjectives do.
Example: My new car starts faster than the old one
She studies harder than her sister does.
For some one-syllable adjectives, the comparative of adjectives may be used interchangeably with the comparative of adverbs, with no change in meaning:
Example: My new car starts more quickly than the old one.
My new car starts quicker than the old one.
However, if the adjective has an irregular comparative, then the adverb must use it:
Examples: She writes better than I do.
He threw the ball farther than his brother did.
There are also a number of adverbs compared irregularly. Here are some of them.
Some adverbs are never compared. They express qualities unsuitable for comparison. Here are some of them: again, almost, before, ever, never, here, there, now, then, there, thus, too, twice, very.
In grammar, the superlative is the form of an adjective (or adverb) that indicates that the person or thing (or action) modified has the quality of the adjective (or adverb) to a degree greater than that of anything it is being compared to in a given context. English superlatives are typically formed with the suffix est (healthiest, weakest) or the word most (most recent, most interesting). [Jespersen, Otto, pag. 385 ]
In English, the superlative and the comparative are created by inflecting adjectives or adverbs. The superlative is used to say what thing or person has the most of a particular quality within a group or of its kind. The structure of a superlative consists normally of the positive stem of the adjective or adverb, plus the suffix -est (the superlatives of monosyllable adjectives) or the modifier "most" or "least" before the adjective or adverb (the superlative of adjectives of more than one syllable). It always has the definite article and is completed by "of" or another preposition plus one or more nouns of entities that it surpasses to the highest or greatest degree. [Morenberg, Max; p. 352.]
He is the tallest of/in the class.
The town is the most beautiful in the country.
There are some writing rules, when we form superlative.
1. If the adjective ALREADY ends in -E, then we simply add -ST
nice ? the nicest safe ? the safest
2. If the adjective ends in a consonant + -Y, it change Y to i before adding -EST
pretty ? the prettiest friendly ? the friendliest
3. If the adjective ends in a consonant+vowel+consonant combination, double the final consonant before adding -EST
Do NOT double the consonant in words ending in -W or -Y
slow ? the slowest coy ? the coyest
The null comparative is a comparative in which the starti
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