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Introduction: Physical distancing under the coronavirus disease COVID pandemic had a significant impact on lifestyles, including exercise routines. In this study, we examined the relationship between mental health and addictive behaviors, such as excessive exercise and the use of image and performance enhancing drugs IPEDs across 12 sport disciplines. The mean age was The number of male participants was The participants were grouped into activity group AG and non-activity group NAG according to the presence or absence of their exercise habits. The results were compared between these groups, as well as across sport disciplines, while taking into account the relationship between different psychological measures and IPEDs consumption. Regarding the differences across the various sport disciplines, those who were involved in practicing Weight Lifting and Cross Fit were found to be more at risk of excessive exercising and more inclined to use a wide range of IPEDs. The coronavirus disease COVID pandemic has posed a sudden and unprecedented challenge to public health, leading to dramatic lifestyle changes Basu et al. In this context, exercise could play an important part as a coping strategy to deal with stressful situations. Evidence suggests that regular exercising could have a positive impact on mental health, improving depressive mood, anxiety Huang et al. It also helps to improve cognitive and affective functions, such as memory Parfitt et al. It is known that exercise and the use of drugs, such as image and performance enhancing drugs IPEDs , or licit boosters e. Previous studies have shown that IPEDs are increasingly bought over the Internet without any medical supervision, possibly leading to excessive or even toxic intakes Mooney et al. For example, the overuse of caffeine tablets could induce negative outcomes, such as insomnia or sudden death Ronis et al. It is worth noting that in some cases, licit supplements themselves can contain undisclosed prohibited substances by the World Anti-Doping Agency WADA and thus expose users to unwanted health risks Mazzoni et al. However, both are beneficial to health at low to intermediate levels. When the COVID pandemic was officially recognized by the World Health Organization WHO in March , it was assumed that the engagement with certain rewarding behaviors, as represented by physical exercise during a period when there was no access to gyms, would have increased considerably as a coping strategy during prolonged periods of self-isolation. Although exercise might have helped to alleviate stress and difficult thoughts at such challenging times, it might also have contributed to a reduced engagement in social interactions and other daily activities, simultaneously facilitating the excessive intake of IPEDs and the development of other risky habits that are then difficult to break. However, to date, the differences among sport disciplines in the occurrence of excessive exercising and their association with IPEDs use during the pandemic are still unknown, and this is the first study that investigates these issues. In this context, we hypothesized that the engagement with exercise and IPEDs use as a coping strategy during the pandemic might have changed significantly across the various sport disciplines. Each specialty is, in fact, unique in nature, and endurance athletes, such as ball game players, fitness center attendees, and those engaged in power disciplines, have already shown a higher risk of excessive exercising in a pre-pandemic situation Di Lodovico et al. We were also interested in assessing the relationship between excessive exercise and different types of psychological functioning, such as appearance anxiety Corazza et al. For instance, it has been previously found that those who were involved in practicing intensive mind—body training, such as martial arts players, aimed at achieving a deeper integration between mind psychology and body exercise Nakao and Ohara, and reported a number of cognitive health benefits as a result of their training Fujiwara et al. More specifically, in this study, we aimed to investigate the differences in excessive exercising, appearance anxiety, and self-compassion as a related psychological measure between a subjects engaged with habitual exercise routines activity group, AG and non-exercisers non-activity group, NAG and b across different sport disciplines. As for comparisons among different sport disciplines, we hypothesized that several disciplines that demand relatively high-intensity functional training would show a higher level of EAI and AAI. Besides, we aimed to identify the relevance of IPEDs use in association with abovementioned psychological measures. Finally, we examined the relationships between psychological measures, including excessive exercising, and IPEDs use in both AG and NAG across various sport disciplines. Overall, 2, participants were included in the survey. The mean age of the sample was The AG corresponded to the participants who practiced more than one sport in this investigation. The AG comprised The remaining The questions were in the multiple choice format, and the list of choices consisted of vitamins, green tea extract, and whey protein for details, see Supplementary Table 1. We used the EAI to assess the risk of excessive exercising Terry et al. The EAI contains six items rated on a five-point scale e. The higher scores indicate a higher risk of exercise addiction. The AAI is a item questionnaire rated on a 5-point Likert scale e. The higher scores of SCS indicate more compassion toward oneself, namely, kindness to self. This scale has 12 items reflecting on attitudes toward oneself e. All responses were anonymous, securely stored, and made accessible only to the members of the research team. Dissemination activities were supported by established laboratories based in eight countries the United Kingdom, Italy, Lithuania, Hungary, Portugal, Spain, Japan, and Brazil , and anonymized data were stored in a secure platform at the University of Hertfordshire. The questionnaires were translated and back-translated from English into Italian, Spanish, Japanese, Portuguese, Hungarian, and Lithuanian. This study involved participants aged 18 years and above from a broad spectrum of the general population. It was advertised widely on social media platforms, including Facebook groups e. There were no exclusion criteria. All participants gave written informed consent to participate. The t -test and ANOVA were used to examine the continuous variable, and chi-square tests were used to test the categorical variables. The t -tests were applied to compare the EAI, AAI, and SCS scores, and chi-square tests were used for the comparisons in terms of IPEDs use, change in the amount of smoking and drinking, and the presence of any addiction history before and after physical distancing. The Tamhane's T2 method was used for post-hoc multiple comparisons as the results indicated no equal variances i. With equal variances in the SCS scores, the Tukey's post-hoc procedure was performed for multiple comparisons. In addition, chi-square tests were used for the comparisons regarding the presence of IPEDs use, change in the amount of smoking and drinking, and any addiction history before and after physical distancing. The comparisons were performed between one of the disciplines and others. The Bonferroni corrections were applied for multiple comparisons of the data related to the changes in psycho-behavioral measures before and after the COVID pandemic after chi-square tests i. History of addictions was reported among 7. Table 2. The group comparisons between the different sport disciplines are shown in Supplementary Tables 2 — 4 and schematically summarized in Figure 1. Figure 1. Some sports showed significantly higher, or lower, percentages in IPEDs user than other disciplines. The rate of subjects who had history of addiction and subjects who experienced worsening of it during physical distancing did not differ among all disciplines. These results could support the findings of a previous study that AAI and SCS were non-significant predictors of the habit of physical exercise Dores et al. Only Walking corresponded to the low EAI group. These results confirm the previous evidence Di Lodovico et al. Those who perform Weight Lifting often pursue strength and muscle hypertrophy. However, when the training becomes obsessive and compulsive, it could lead to Muscle Dysmorphia Maida and Armstrong, ; Mosley, Since Cross Fit is recognized as a kind of high-intensity functional training with a high risk of excessive exercise Lichtenstein and Jensen, ; Claudino et al. Still, the fact that In other words, the co-occurrence of IPEDs and excessive Internet use during the COVID pandemic has forced individuals to change their lifestyle drastically, leading in some cases to the development of new risky behaviors, which might then be difficult to break. Some interesting results also emerged in terms of self-compassion, which has been previously associated with high coping skills and motivation of athletes toward their training in sports Barczak and Eklund, The high level of self-compassion has also inversely been related to the risk of a substance use disorder, such as alcohol and cannabis Phelps et al. In this study, the case of Cycling was of particular relevance, in which this sport discipline reported higher SCS and lower AAI scores. Although more studies across different levels of training are required, the current findings might suggest that high self-compassion might have contributed to lower AAI and adequate engagement in Cycling. They would have to pay attention to the strategies of approaching each activity, such as checking the risk of burnout and compulsiveness with the exercises from subjective, together with objective points of view Kreher and Schwartz, ; Weinstein and Weinstein, A possible interpretation is that those who have an apparent tendency for either excessive exercise or appearance anxiety could have a high risk of excessive IPEDs use, regardless of what discipline of exercise people are engaged in. There are several limitations to this study. Therefore, further research would be needed to further clarify the relationship between excessive exercising and IPEDs use in larger samples. Second, the internal reliability of the EAI is low, but we adopted that measure because this study was exploratory. Therefore, causal relationships among these measures were still unclear. A longitudinal study would be expected to be performed during the time course, i. Fourth, the interpretations of the results should be cautious because of the discrepancy in gender valance. Finally, the types of sport disciplines should be expanded, for example, dividing ball sports into specific disciplines, such as baseball, football, and table tennis, in order to clarify the characteristics of each discipline more precisely, such as the tendency of falling into excessive exercise or IPEDs use. While for mental health benefits of exercise in general, this study showed how excessive exercising could potentially be associated with excessive IPEDs use, which may contribute to further negative outcomes during the COVID pandemic. It is worthwhile paying attention to the risks associated with IPEDs consumption, particularly in individuals with traits of excessive exercising, or appearance anxiety, especially in disciplines that demand high-intensity functional training, who emerged to be most at risk. At the same time, those who are more vulnerable to develop excessive exercising patterns, or manifest appearance anxiety, could be more prompt to use IPEDs regardless of the discipline of practice. As the global COVID pandemic persists, longitudinal studies would be needed to examine the causal relationship between exercise habits and IPEDs use for a longer period of time. Findings emerging from our work suggest the need for more balanced mental health promotion strategies in terms of both positive and negative aspects of habitual exercise and their associations with other mental health conditions, particularly in regard to the overlooked cross-addiction between excessive exercising and overuse of substances, including IPEDs. Because of the implementation of physical distancing measures, the lifestyles and the coping strategies adopted by people with addiction have drastically changed. While face-to-face services have played an important role in supporting these individuals before the pandemic, they might now consider alternative forms of intervention, such as telephone and virtual reality-based programs which have been developed during the pandemic Liese and Monley, Excessive exercising and the related excessive IPEDs consumption may be prevented by these newly established strategies for health services. The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation. HF and OC: conceptualization and resources. JB: formal analysis. MS: writing—original draft preparation. MS and KK: visualization. OC: project administration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Caffeine use disorder: an item-response theory analysis of proposed DSM-5 criteria. American Psychatric Association Jeste, J. Lieberman, D. Fassler, and R. Banz, B. Behavioral addictions in addiction medicine. Brain Res. Barczak, N. The moderating effect of self-compassion on relationships between performance and subsequent coping and motivation. Sport Exerc. Basu, S. Indian Psychol. Berczik, K. Exercise addiction: symptoms, diagnosis, epidemiology, and etiology. 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No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Top bar navigation. About us About us. Sections Sections. About journal About journal. Article types Author guidelines Editor guidelines Publishing fees Submission checklist Contact editorial office. Introduction The coronavirus disease COVID pandemic has posed a sudden and unprecedented challenge to public health, leading to dramatic lifestyle changes Basu et al. Materials and Methods Participants Overall, 2, participants were included in the survey. Table 1. Table 3.

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Palanga buying marijuana