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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Correspondence: Ahmad Ali Eslami, Ph. E-mail: eslamiaa gmail. Drug abuse is one of the most serious social problems in many countries. College students, particularly at their first year of education, are considered as one of the at risk groups for drug abuse. The present study aimed to determine cognitive factors related to drug abuse among a sample of Iranian male medical college students based on the social cognitive theory SCT. This cross-sectional study was carried out on Iranian male medical college students who were randomly selected to participate voluntarily in the study. The participants filled out a self-administered questionnaire. Data were analyzed by the SPSS software ver. The findings suggest that designing and implementation of educational programs may be useful to increase negative attitude, outcome expectancies, and subjective norms towards drug abuse for college students in order to prevent drug abuse. Drug abuse is considered as one of the main social problems worldwide. It ruins lots of lives and huge national capitals are spent to deal with its detrimental consequences on societies. Plus social problems, drug abuse can lead to medical as well as psychological conditions Scholte et al. In addition, According to the statistics by the World Health Organization WHO reports, drug abuse is increasing among teens and young adults; Iran is no exception; recent studies show that new young Iranian adults start to abuse drugs use a drug every day and addicted population grows twice in each 10 years Khayatipur et al. Among young adults, collage students at their first year of education are considered particularly as an in danger group for drug abuse. This is attributed to some factors such as entering a new phase of life, leaving their family, peer tension, etc. Abbasighahremanloo et al. Furthermore, studies have noted that training is the most effective method to prevent drug abuse Tavousi et al. On the other hand, designing and editing effective prevention plans require deep understanding of causes of the phenomenon and related factors Springer et al. The most efficient training programs stem from theoretical approaches based on behavior change patterns Tavousi et al. Among these, a more common pattern and theory to analyze behavior is the social cognitive theory SCT. Bandura chose to use some concepts of cognitive psychology to combine it with visual learning principles and introduced SCT. Like other behavior psychology theories, SCT is made of several constructs, and this multiplicity makes researchers to choose certain constructs based on the studied behavior Bandura, Considering drug abuse, several studies pointed out to the roles of the constructs of this theory; for example, Gue et al, showed that having positive believes on alcoholic drinks among 10 and 16 year-olds increases the danger of alcoholic drinks abuse at a later time at 21 years of age to 1. Tucker et al. Read et al. Many studies, also, mentioned the importance of self-control in risky behaviors; for example, Jackson introduced low self-control as an important factor on drug abuse among the youth Jackson, In addition, Sussman et al. Furthermore, Adalbjarnardottir and Rafnsson in a long-term study suggested that the lower the self-control level, the higher anti-social behaviors among students would be. Substance abuse, as a non-adaptive pattern of using substances, results in frequent occupational, social, and legal problems Ahmadpanah et al. In this regards, drug abuse among college students can be followed several complications, such as reduce academic achievement, educational problems, psychological and physical illnesses, and high risk behavior among students Barati et al. Iran is one of many countries in which the prevalence of the substance abuse has been increasing, especially among the adolescents, young and college students Ahmadi et al. In other hand, several studies have shown that male students are in higher risk of experiencing and abusing drugs than female students Chassin et al. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to determine cognitive factors related to drug abuse among a sample of Iranian male medical college students based on the SCT. This cross-sectional study was conducted on a sample of male students aged 18 to 22 years old with a mean SD age of Of the population of , of them signed the consent form and voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. The study protocol was approved by the institutional review board of the Isfahan University of Medical Sciences; furthermore our research project was approval by the committee of ethics of the Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, the center of Iran. Prior to conducting the main project, a pilot study was conducted to assess the utility of the instrument. The pilot study participants were 18 male medical college students, similar to those who participated in the main study. The pilot study was conducted to obtain feedback about the clarity, length, comprehensiveness, and completion time of the various instruments as well as collecting data to estimate the internal consistency of the measures. Predictive factors for drug use included some variables of the SCT. This section included 47 items which were composed under six major constructs including 1 attitude towards drug use, 2 outcome expectation towards drug use, 3 outcome expectancies towards drug use, 4 subjective norms toward drug use, 5 behavioral intention toward drug use, and 6 self-control. Nine items were designed to measure attitude e. Seven items were designed to measure outcome expectation e. Seven items were designed to measure outcome expectancies e. Seven items were designed to measure subjective norms e. Four items were designed to evaluate behavioral intention e. Attitude item was standardized to a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 to 7. Using the 1 not at all to 5 very much scale. The data were analyzed by the SPSS software for windows ver. Mean age of the respondents was The initiation age for drug use was Almost, 4. About About 3. Furthermore, Nearly A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed to explain the variation in behavioral intention to drug use. Finally, a logistic regression backward stepwise method building procedure was conducted and finally on 3 rd step, the procedure stopped and the best model was selected. Among the constructs, attitude, outcome expectancies and subjective norms were the most influential predictive factors for drug use Table 3. The results of the study indicated that the positive attitude towards drug abuse, outcome expectancies of drug abuse, and subjective norm encouraging to drug abuse were the three main cognitive factors which were associated with drug abuse among Iranian college students attending medical universities. The obtained results showed that items such as forgetting problems, improving mental powers and increasing self-esteem received highest average scores among other attitude construct questions. This suggests that drug users had better attitude to positive consequences than negative ones for example, mental problems. Therefore, it seems that training courses should focus on improving negative attitude on using drug and its negative consequences among students. Outcome expectancies in the SCT is defined as the values that person places on a given outcomes incentives, and outcomes of change that have functional meaning Bandura, Results of the present study showed that items such as being happy, feeling fresh and getting mind away from problems while using drug received highest average score among other constructs of outcome expectancies in using a drug. Callas et al. Also, Simon-Morton et al. In addition, Lam et al. It is needed to focus on psychic factors, which are interfaces and predicators of behaviors, in comprehensive, sanitary instructive programs Allahverdipour et al. In other hand, our findings showed outcome expectation was predict drug abuse behavioral intention, but outcome expectancies was a strong factor for prediction drug use behavior. It seem, high positive outcome expectancies e. Subjective norms are agreed and genesis criteria which regulate people behaviors. Subjective norms introduce correct action methods and show people the things they should avoid. Subjective norms are considered as predictive factors in behavior achievement intention. Many studies mentioned the effects of subjective norms on forming behaviors related to drug abuse Jalilian et al, ; Leitner et al. In this regard, Leitner et al. Knowing pursers from social and cultural environment of aim group and protective values, positive attitudes and sanitary behaviors and arguing with teens in plans related to them are some of the benefits to use peer group in trainings Noori Sistani et al. Efficiency of pursers is the basis of this theory where sensitive information is shared easier among pursers DiClemente et al. Trained purser could share information effectively by getting pursers involved and could be more efficient to other pursers by improving; furthermore, a related study showed that only one out of six teens gets information from those others than their pursers Akbarzadeh et al. Along with this, Jalilian et al. Considering the important role of subjective norms in drug abuse and, also, efficiency of using purser training approaches, it is suggested to plan and administer training courses to prevent drug abuse among teens and youth, especially through making use of purser training approach. There are multiple factors to explain or predict the drug abuse among youth people. The present study moderately confirmed the applicability of the cognitive factors to explain drug abuse among medical college students in Iran. Our finding could be useful for guiding practitioners and implementers to design and implement effective preventative programs to protect the youth from drug abuse. This article is a part of the Ph. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Glob J Health Sci. Find articles by Farzad Jalilian. Find articles by Mari Ataee. Find articles by Behzad Karami Matin. Find articles by Mohammad Ahmadpanah. Find articles by Touraj Ahmadi Jouybari. Find articles by Ahmad Ali Eslami. Find articles by Mohammad Mahboubi. Find articles by Mehdi Mirzaei Alavijeh. Predictor variables of drug abuse based on bivariate correlation analysis. Attitude Outcome expectation Outcome expectancies Subjective norms Self-control Behavioral intention 6. Open in a new tab. Predictors of the perceptual variables in drug use behavioral intention. Variables B S. Conflict of Interest Statement Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

Kermanshah buy Ecstasy

Thank you for visiting nature. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. With the substantial increase in the use of stimulants, especially methamphetamine, in recent years, the present study aimed to cluster methamphetamine users based on personality traits and self-efficacy, and compare their mental health, sleep quality, and the risk of relapse in the identified clusters. This cross-sectional study was conducted through convenience sampling on methamphetamine users in addiction treatment centers in Kermanshah, western Iran. A total of methamphetamine users were distinguished into three clusters with frequencies of The participants in the first cluster were characterized by low self-efficacy, high neuroticism, sensation seeking, and aggressiveness, along with low extroversion and activity, low positive health, high negative health, low sleep quality, and high risk of drug relapse. The participants in the second cluster reported moderate levels of self-efficacy, neuroticism, sensation seeking, activity, and aggressiveness, high extroversion, and moderate levels of mental health, sleep quality, and the risk of relapse. Moreover, the participants in the third cluster reported the highest level of self-efficacy, the lowest level of neuroticism, sensation seeking, and aggressiveness, moderate extroversion and high activity, low relapse risk, high sleep quality, as well as high positive and low negative health symptoms. The third cluster was significantly different from the other two clusters in terms of the mentioned factors. The findings of this study suggest that low self-efficacy and the presence of neuroticism, sensation seeking, and high aggressiveness contribute to reduced mental health and sleep quality, as well as an increased risk of relapse in methamphetamine users. In the past decades, the use of methamphetamine has increased rapidly around the world. For example, from to , the amounts of methamphetamine detected in East and Southeast Asia increased almost tenfold. Chronic use of methamphetamine is associated with medical, psychiatric, and cognitive impairments 1 , 2. During and , the estimated rate of past-year methamphetamine users among adults was 6. Further, among those, about In Iran, it is estimated that 1. One of the side effects of methamphetamine use is decreased levels of mental health in users 5. The use of methamphetamine has a profound negative effect on mental health, creates significant risks for mental health, and can also complicate the drug treatment procedure 6. The burden of mental health and substance use disorders worldwide is predicted to increase in the coming decades 7. Previous studies have shown that people who use drugs have poor mental health, and mental disorders are often associated with the later onset of substance use disorders in these people 8 , 9 , Studies on the relationship between mental illness and substance use disorder have yielded mixed findings. Still, they generally reported common genetic, environmental, social, and cultural risk factors for poor mental health and substance use For example, cannabis use is associated with the risk of mental illness Conversely, mental illness may also increase the risk of substance abuse. People may use alcohol, tobacco, or amphetamine as self-medication to deal with distress and negative thoughts 13 , 14 , In addition to the mentioned problems, long-term use of methamphetamine leads to harmful effects such as sleep problems in users Sleep is a natural body function that plays a crucial role in maintaining mental and physical health. Decreased sleep quality, increased sleep delay, and daytime sleepiness are often associated with methamphetamine use Moreover, symptoms such as neuroticism, depression, and decreased functioning associated with methamphetamine use can often lead to poor sleep quality Studies have shown that the consumption of methamphetamine can have many direct and indirect effects on the quality of sleep due to the disruption of the sleep—wake cycle 19 , The use of methamphetamine adversely affects the objective measures of sleep, increases the onset of sleep, and reduces the total sleep time significantly Furthermore, relapse is one of the important complications of addiction, which occurs again after cessation of use. Relapse is the process of returning to past unhealthy behavior that forces and encourages a person to use the substance again. Substance use relapse is one of the main problems in treating people with drug addiction. For example, Hser et al. Addiction can be considered a physical, mental, and social disease, and many pre-addictive factors play an essential role in its formation and development Identifying these factors can be effective in controlling and preventing addiction. Self-efficacy is one of the variables associated with substance abuse One of the fundamental aspects of self-efficacy is the belief that a person can influence the consequences of their life by exercising control, especially when facing stressors; having control over conditions is an important factor in adapting to various situations In other words, those who consider themselves more efficient and achieve functional success feel more satisfied with life and are less likely to engage in risky behaviors Dolan et al. McKellar et al. They found that self-efficacy is one of the main predictors among substance users. Robinson et al. Epstein et al. A literature review indicated that in addition to self-efficacy, personality traits are among the important cognitive factors in the tendency to abuse methamphetamine Indeed, from a psychological perspective, substance abusers have vulnerable personality traits 31 that lead them to addiction. Personality traits refer to an organized set and a unit consisting of relatively fixed and stable characteristics in people, which distinguish a person from other people as a whole. Personality traits include countless sets of features whose impact on the body and mind of people is not the same. Some personality traits are closely related to their physical and mental health and well-being and have a decisive role and impact on their health 32 , In addition, some personality characteristics negatively correlate with neuroticism and mental problems Concerning the relationship between personality traits and addiction, Tsai et al. Another study found that people with high neuroticism and low conscientiousness are likelier to use drugs Following these findings, investigating the factors associated with methamphetamine abuse is vital in the sense that methamphetamine abuse causes various problems in the health and well-being of users, such as increasing negative mental health, sleep problems, and the likelihood of relapse. Due to the high prevalence of methamphetamine use and the severe side effects this drug causes 4 , 35 , no study has addressed the problems of methamphetamine abusers through cluster analysis. It should be noted that cluster analysis is used to identify homogeneous clusters. In cluster analysis, the members in the same group called a cluster are more similar in some sense to each other than those in different clusters. Thus, cluster analysis is an exploratory tool that can reveal the concordance and structure of the data to understand the effective factors in methamphetamine abuse and provide solutions for prevention, treatment, and improving the health of methamphetamine abusers. Moreover, given the importance of methamphetamine use, the present study follows two goals: 1 To cluster methamphetamine users based on personality traits and self-efficacy and 2 To compare mental health, sleep quality, and the risk of relapse in the identified clusters. The present study was a cross-sectional one. The study population included all methamphetamine users who visited the addiction treatment clinic of Farabi Hospital and the addiction treatment clinics Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran and had been diagnosed with substance use disorder based on structured interviews DSM-5 by a psychiatrist. The final sample size was estimated as persons selected using convenience sampling from the study population who met the inclusion criteria during the study's timeframe. When determining the sample size, to ensure an adequate level of test power, a minimum of 20 samples per variable is considered sufficient Given that 22 sub-categories and overall scores are accounted for in this study, the minimum sample size required is This study included participants. Furthermore, hierarchical cluster analysis is deemed appropriate for datasets with fewer than cases, which applies to our study as well. After obtaining permission from the Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences and making the necessary arrangements with the relevant authorities, the researchers visited the addiction treatment clinics and the applicants. They provided some information about the objectives of the study and obtained written and informed consent from the applicants. The eligible volunteers were evaluated through interviews by an experienced psychologist collaborating on the project. All participants were evaluated by completing the demographic checklist and other questionnaires regarding demographic information, individual and family self-report records, substance use records, and the data related to personality traits, self-efficacy, mental health, sleep quality, and risk of relapse. Data collection was done for almost 12 months. Questionnaires were completed from June, —June It should be noted that these data were collected through interviews with the patients by an experienced psychologist. The people with incomplete data for any reason were excluded from the study. Besides, all participants attended the study with full awareness of the details of the research project and its execution procedure. The interviews were conducted, and the questionnaires were completed after establishing rapport with the participants and considering their physical and mental conditions. The General Self-Efficacy scale has 10 items answered on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 4. In Iran, in the research of Rabbani Bawjdan et al. The Zuckerman—Kuhlman personality questionnaire is a self-report questionnaire used to measure 5 personality traits. Each item marked true is scored 1, and each false item is scored 0 This study used the item Persian version with established validity and reliability in Iran. The items cover neuroticism 10 items , sensation seeking 8 items , activity 8 items , extroversion 6 items , and aggressiveness 9 items The questionnaire was developed in by Goldberg and Hiller to identify mental disorders in different centers and environments. Its items examine the mental state in the last month and measure symptoms such as abnormal thoughts and feelings and aspects of observable behavior. This study analyzed the internal consistency and external validity of the item mental health questionnaire in the Spanish general population, including a stratified sample of individuals aged 25 to Within the Iranian context, the research undertaken by Ebadi et al. This self-report instrument was developed by Buysse It contains 18 items with a total score ranging from 0 to 21, with higher scores indicating lower sleep quality. Scores higher than 5 confirm poor sleep quality. The scale assesses the risk of substance use disorder SUD relapse. This scale contains 30 items that measure 5 subscales, including anxiety and intention to use drugs AI ; emotionality problem EP ; compulsivity for drugs CD ; positive expectancies and lack of control over drugs PL ; and lack of negative expectancy for drugs NE. Higher average scores on the whole scale and subscale indicate a higher risk of relapse risk. In this study, only the total score was used. All items are related to a drug-related situation in the past 1 week. The items are assessed on a three-step rating scale, with higher scores indicating a greater risk of using the drug of dependence. In the research conducted by Yamini and Khorsandi Shamir 45 in Iran, the construct validity of the questionnaire, encompassing both convergent and divergent aspects, was found to be at a commendable level. The recorded data were entered into SPSS software by a statistician and analyzed using relevant statistical techniques. The personality traits, self-efficacy, mental health, sleep quality, and risk of relapse in methamphetamine users were assessed with the help of cluster analysis. The final number of clusters was specified using cluster analysis and drawing a dendrogram and cumulative values. Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate clusters to determine the distribution of demographic factors in frequency, percentage, minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation. The chi-square test was used to check the relationship between the distribution of classified factors in the studied clusters. If necessary, the Fisher exact test was used to adjust it. The average values for the quantitative factors in the extracted clusters were compared through a one-way analysis of variance ANOVA. Ultimately, the data from participants were entered into the software and analyzed using the relevant statistical methods. The significance level was set at 0. This study was conducted with full compliance with ethical protocols. To this end, the objectives of the study were explained to the participants in clear and simple language. Participation in the study was completely voluntary and without any compulsion, and the participants were assured that the results of the analysis and tests would be kept completely confidential. The participants had the right to withdraw at any study stage, including data collection. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants who signed a consent form. This study was registered at Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences in Iran and was approved by the university's ethics committee IR. The data for methamphetamine users were analyzed using hierarchical cluster analysis. The k-nearest neighbors algorithm was used in the hierarchical cluster analysis to determine the number of clusters based on the self-efficacy and personality traits of the participants. This algorithm calculates the distance between two clusters based on the distance between their farthest points. Besides, the squared Euclidean distance was considered a measure of cluster similarity. The data analysis, the dendrogram, and the accumulation coefficients and reducing their changes along with the increase in the number of clusters showed that participants were placed into three clusters according to the level of self-efficacy and personality traits. Accordingly, different self-efficacy and personality trait averages created three clusters in the studied sample. In the end, the participants were distinguished into three clusters with frequencies of Although none of the participants in the third cluster were over 55 years old, the number of participants age group in the first cluster 7 persons; 6. Moreover, the participants aged 15—35 accounted for more than half of the participants in the first cluster 58 persons; However, the participants aged 36—55 in the second cluster accounted for more than half of the participants persons; Thus, the second cluster with a higher current age distribution than the average age distribution in the first cluster and low age distribution in the third cluster showed that cluster memberships are significantly different based on the current age of the participants. Moreover, the number of women in the third cluster 17 persons; The clusters defined in terms of the history of legal problems in the family as well as the history of physical and psychological abuse in childhood, showed statistically significant differences. Thus, the history of family legal problems was reported in the first cluster 23 cases; Moreover, in the first cluster, the number of mental abuse 15 cases; The period of substance use was more than 72 months in the first cluster with 79 cases; The analysis of the reasons for the first substance use also showed that most participants in the first cluster reported peer persuasion as the first reason for their substance use persons; At the same time, most participants in the second and third clusters reported getting pleasure and persuasion by friends as the first reason for their substance use. Family problems reported as the first reason for substance use in the third cluster 14 persons; Accordingly, the average age of the first substance use for the participants in the third cluster Besides, the average duration of substance use for the participants in the third cluster Further analysis indicated that the average self-efficacy score for the participants in the third cluster Hence, the average scores for neuroticism, excitement, and aggressiveness were reported to be higher in the first cluster compared to the second cluster, and the corresponding values were higher in the second cluster than in the third cluster. However, the mean score for extraversion was higher in the second cluster compared to the first and third clusters, and the corresponding value was higher in the third cluster compared to the second cluster. This means that higher levels of extraversion are associated with higher levels of self-efficacy. These results also showed that participants in the first cluster were characterized by high neuroticism, sensation seeking, aggressiveness, low extroversion, activity, and self-efficacy. The participants in the second cluster reported moderate self-efficacy and neuroticism, sensation seeking, moderate activity and aggressiveness, and high extroversion. Furthermore, the participants in the third cluster were distinguished from the members of the other two clusters with the highest level of self-efficacy, low levels of neuroticism, sensation seeking, and aggressiveness, moderate extroversion, and high activity Table 4. Furthermore, a comparison of the average scores of positive health and negative health among the three clusters showed that the two components of health have a statistically significant effect in distinguishing the clusters from each other. Thus, the participants in the second and third clusters had higher levels of positive signs of mental health and lower levels of negative health. In addition, the average scores for positive health symptoms in each cluster showed statistically significant differences compared to the first cluster. Thus, mean negative health, overall sleep quality, sleep disorders, and sleep efficiency were significantly higher in the first cluster compared to the second cluster, and the corresponding values in the second cluster were greater compared to the third cluster. Furthermore, positive health was significantly higher in the third cluster compared to the second and first clusters. Following these results, the higher levels of self-efficacy in the second and third clusters were associated with lower levels of relapse risk symptoms in these two clusters compared to the first cluster. These findings indicated that the participants in the first cluster reported low self-efficacy, high relapse risk, low positive health symptoms, high negative health symptoms, and low sleep quality. Thus they were differentiated from the participants in the other two clusters. The second cluster was distinguished from the other clusters with a moderate level of self-efficacy, mental health, sleep quality, and the risk of relapse. On the other hand, the third cluster was characterized by high self-efficacy, low risk of relapse, and low sleep quality score, as well as high positive health and low negative health signs Table 5. The present study compared self-efficacy and personality traits based on cluster analysis of mental health, sleep quality, and relapse among methamphetamine users. This study used self-efficacy and personality traits to cluster methamphetamine users. The results of the data analysis showed that the level of self-efficacy was lower in the first cluster than in the second and third clusters. Accordingly, negative mental health was higher, and positive mental health was lower in the same cluster. Furthermore, the substance users in this cluster had a lower quality of sleep and a higher relapse. Our findings indicated that self-efficacy is associated with both negative and positive mental health outcomes. Self-efficacy, as a psychological ability, has the potential to alleviate sleep problems. Self-efficacy can regulate negative feelings and enhance emotional well-being, ultimately improving sleep quality Methamphetamine users in the first of our clusters, characterized by lower self-efficacy, exhibited the highest relapse rate compared to the second and third clusters. This finding aligns with Zhang et al. Schuck et al. These findings support the notion that self-efficacy, as a personality trait, can influence substance use relapse. Self-efficacy, rooted in purposeful thinking, is crucial in individuals' behavior in high-risk situations. Those with high self-efficacy are better equipped to resist substance temptation, leading to a lower likelihood of relapse. For instance, participants in the third cluster, characterized by higher self-efficacy, exhibited lower relapse rates compared to those in the other two clusters 24 , 58 , In addition to self-efficacy, personality traits were used in the present study to cluster methamphetamine users. The data showed that neuroticism was high in the cluster with low mental health and sleep quality and a high drug relapse rate. However, the participants with low neuroticism in the third cluster reported different results, indicating that mental health and sleep quality were high and relapse rates were low. Lee et al. Shokrkon and Nicoladis 61 also found that people who have a high neuroticism score usually experience more negative emotions such as neuroticism, anger, irritability, and fear and show a stronger reaction to stressors, making them vulnerable to the adverse consequences of stressful experiences and thus feeling more anxious and insecure The findings of the present study also demonstrated that neuroticism is associated with sleep quality in methamphetamine users. For instance, sleep quality was lower in the participants in the first cluster with higher neuroticism compared to the second and third clusters. The impact of neuroticism on the quality of sleep and frequent awakenings during sleep has been confirmed by other studies in the literature 63 , 64 , People usually experience stress and mental suffering when faced with changes, and the changes made in their life may lead to poor sleep quality. On the other hand, considering that stress and neuroticism are formed through physiological-psychological arousal, such changes certainly affect the quality of sleep 66 , In addition to sleep quality, neuroticism was also associated with the relapse rate in methamphetamine users. As a case in point, the participants in the first cluster, with higher neuroticism, reported a higher relapse score rate. Schellekens et al. In line with this finding, Fisher et al. Hojjat et al. These people show a weaker degree of adaptability with others and psychological distress, and these characteristics in people with neurotic traits probably make them more prone to relapse The present study showed that, compared to the other two clusters, the sensation-seeking score was high in methamphetamine users in the first cluster. They reported lower positive mental health symptoms, higher negative health symptoms, lower sleep quality, and a higher relapse rate. Kalantari and Zolfaghari Zaferani also found a correlation between sensation seeking and general health. Accordingly, we can argue that excitement-seeking people do various things to get the optimal arousal level, which can adversely affect their mental health The data in this study indicated that in addition to mental health, sensation seeking was also associated with the quality of sleep in methamphetamine users, indicating that the higher the sensation seeking, the lower the sleep quality and vice versa, as reported in previous studies 73 , 74 , This is to argue that high sensation seeking can increase emotional response through cognitive hyperarousal and facilitate insomnia. Sensation seeking was related to substance abuse relapse in the present study. Accordingly, in the third cluster, compared to the first cluster in which sensation seeking was low, the relapse rate was lower compared to the first and second clusters. Hampson, Andrews, and Barkley 76 also found that sensation-seeking, bonding, and social perceptions are predictors of substance abuse. In another study, Martins et al. This finding implies that negative emotions and the inability to manage them properly are important triggers for the resumption of substance use, and negative emotions make people vulnerable to addiction and its recurrence Another variable that was addressed in cluster analysis was aggressiveness. The participants in the first cluster reported a higher level of aggressiveness compared to the second and third clusters. Besides, mental health and sleep quality were reported to be lower in the same cluster, and the relapse rate was higher. This finding suggests that aggressiveness is one of the important and inherent human emotions and is a common reaction to failure and misbehavior. This emotion has unquestionable importance in terms of evolution. Still, its indiscriminate and excessive use causes some health and interpersonal problems for people because quick judgment, faulty information processing, and incorrect predictions can pave the way for aggressive behaviors, leading to negative mental health in people using methamphetamine The data in this study also indicated that aggressiveness was higher in people with sleep problems in the first cluster, as reported by Afshar and Banisi Accordingly, we can argue that aggressiveness is one of the complex human emotions and a common reaction to failure and misbehavior. Aggressiveness is a type of negative emotion. Expressing anger and aggressiveness during the day can cause sleep problems and lead to feeling tired and sleepy during the day. In general, more aggressive people fall asleep later and have poor sleep quality. Nevertheless, it should also be noted that sleep problems have a two-way relationship with aggressiveness. For example, Kayser et al. The present study found that methamphetamine users in the first cluster with a high level of aggressiveness also reported a higher relapse rate. McCormick and Smith 81 found that subjects who scored higher on aggressiveness and aggressiveness measures reported more situations that caused them to use substances and had less confidence that they would withstand such situations. This was especially true for situations involving unpleasant moods, rejection, and conflict with family and friends. These findings imply that problems caused by impulsivity, such as weak inhibition, decision-making, and planning, can be major obstacles in treating people with substance use disorders, especially in initiating, following up, and continuing treatment. In clinical samples, impulsivity is associated with factors that play a role in relapse, such as temptation and severity of substance use, and impulsivity is a potential mediator in treatment response and effectiveness. Impulsive behaviors can lead to the formation of a strong desire to use in substance users, and as a result, undermine their inability to resist it and contribute to returning to substance use again Another construct of personality traits that were addressed in this study is extroversion. The findings indicated that extroversion was low in the participants with lower levels of mental health and sleep quality in the first cluster. They reported that low extroversion could predict high mental health. Accordingly, it can be argued that extroversion is partly related to individual differences. That is, extroverted people show relatively high levels of happiness, enthusiasm, energy, interest, and tirelessness. Studies have also demonstrated that extroverted people are highly motivated to interact with others and spend more time in the socialization process, and use of social support Such people also benefit from social support, socializing, and warm and intimate relationships with others. Hence, extroverted people are less passive and self-blaming and are less likely to retreat to isolation, and they experience higher mental health. In contrast, low extroversion is likely to have a positive effect on mental health In a study on 22, adults aged 30 to years, Stephan et al. This finding was also confirmed by Hintsanen et al. Extroverted people have better mental and physical health and are less reactive to stressful factors, which may lead to better sleep quality Since extraversion is associated with less reactivity to stress, lower risk of lung disease, better respiratory function, and a more physically active lifestyle, extrovert people are less likely to suffer from sleep problems Accordingly, the findings of the present study confirmed a lower relapse rate in people with high extroversion. Other studies have also reported that high extraversion is the most important predictor for starting and increasing the consumption of drugs such as tobacco, alcohol, and cigarettes 48 , This is to argue that extroversion is considered a basic personality trait and is characterized by energy, dominance, positive emotions, and sociability, and it is possible that when this personality trait is lower in people, the rate of relapse will increase The present study was conducted with some limitations. For instance, the participants were methamphetamine users in Kermanshah and were selected through convenience sampling. Thus, the findings might have less generalizability to other populations. A quantitative method was used for data collection. Thus, future studies need to conduct semi-structured interviews to collect more data. Future researchers can also use the findings of the current study to develop educational and therapeutic protocols and to examine their effectiveness in clinical trials. Following the insights from this study, it seems that evaluating self-efficacy and personality traits in methamphetamine users provides valuable information for clinical work, especially for substance abuse and its treatment. In line with the results of the present study, personality traits, and self-efficacy could predict mental health, sleep quality, and relapse, and there was a significant difference in terms of mental health, relapse, and sleep quality in the three clusters in this study. In other words, these variables developed three distinct clusters, and the methamphetamine users in the first cluster with higher levels of neuroticism, sensation seeking, and aggressiveness, and low levels of extroversion, activity, and self-efficacy reported a low level of mental health and sleep quality but a higher relapse rate compared to the methamphetamine users in the second and third cluster. Given the relatively high prevalence of methamphetamine use and its increasing trend in the community, the data in this study indicated that self-efficacy and personality traits could cluster methamphetamine users. This finding can have some implications for preventing and treating methamphetamine use. Accordingly, people with low self-efficacy or high neuroticism can be identified in educational centers such as schools and universities, and these variables can be adjusted with the help of treatment protocols because, in many cases, prevention works better than treatment. Furthermore, the mentioned variables should be seriously considered in the treatment centers, and effective solutions can be presented to the centers in charge of serving these people. As the findings indicated, relapse is associated with personality traits and self-efficacy; thus, reducing relapse is one of the main goals in treating methamphetamine users. However, in medical centers in Iran, more attention is paid to detoxification and drug treatments at the expense of underlying psychological variables. Accordingly, medical centers should address psychological factors as soon as clients are admitted to come up with more stable treatment outcomes. Safora Salemi email: safora. Dean, A. An evaluation of the evidence that methamphetamine abuse causes cognitive decline in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology 38 2 , — Gonzales, R. The methamphetamine problem in the United States. Public Health 31 , — Jones, C. 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Psychiatry 42 3 , — Download references. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. M revised the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and agree with the order of presentation of the authors. Correspondence to Safora Salemi. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and permissions. Ahmadi Jouybari, T. Clustering of methamphetamine users based on personality characteristics and self-efficacy in the west of Iran. Sci Rep 14 , Download citation. Received : 13 December Accepted : 03 July Published : 09 July Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily. Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature. Download PDF. Subjects Medical research Psychology Risk factors. Abstract With the substantial increase in the use of stimulants, especially methamphetamine, in recent years, the present study aimed to cluster methamphetamine users based on personality traits and self-efficacy, and compare their mental health, sleep quality, and the risk of relapse in the identified clusters. Personality traits explain the relationship between psychedelic use and less depression in a comparative study Article Open access 03 May Correlation between loneliness, personality traits, and treatment outcomes in patients with methamphetamine use disorder Article Open access 23 May Introduction In the past decades, the use of methamphetamine has increased rapidly around the world. Methods Procedures and participants The present study was a cross-sectional one. Measures Schwarzer general self-efficacy scale The General Self-Efficacy scale has 10 items answered on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 4. Zuckerman—Kuhlman personality questionnaire The Zuckerman—Kuhlman personality questionnaire is a self-report questionnaire used to measure 5 personality traits. General health questionnaire GHQ The questionnaire was developed in by Goldberg and Hiller to identify mental disorders in different centers and environments. Statistical analysis The recorded data were entered into SPSS software by a statistician and analyzed using relevant statistical techniques. Ethical considerations This study was conducted with full compliance with ethical protocols. Results The data for methamphetamine users were analyzed using hierarchical cluster analysis. Table 1 Cluster analysis with the k-nearest neighbors algorithm. Full size table. Table 3 Comparing the average current age, the first substance use, and duration of substance use in the three clusters. Table 4 Comparing self-efficacy and personality traits in the three clusters. Table 5 Comparing self-efficacy and personality traits in the three clusters. Discussion The present study compared self-efficacy and personality traits based on cluster analysis of mental health, sleep quality, and relapse among methamphetamine users. Limitation The present study was conducted with some limitations. Conclusion Following the insights from this study, it seems that evaluating self-efficacy and personality traits in methamphetamine users provides valuable information for clinical work, especially for substance abuse and its treatment. References Dean, A. Article Google Scholar Baingana, F. Article Google Scholar Khantzian, E. Article Google Scholar Brecht, M. Article Google Scholar Magee, C. Article Google Scholar Tatari, F. Article Google Scholar Wong, M. Google Scholar Zuckerman, M. Article Google Scholar Rezaei, M. Google Scholar Zakiei, A. Article Google Scholar Yamashita, A. Article Google Scholar Yamini, M. Article Google Scholar Simonetti, V. Article Google Scholar Cellini, N. Google Scholar Azimi, Z. Google Scholar Schellekens, A. Google Scholar Mahmoodi, T. Google Scholar Taghvaee, L. Google Scholar Kayser, M. Article Google Scholar Haren, E. Google Scholar Stephan, Y. View author publications. Ethics declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Additional information Publisher's note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. About this article. Cite this article Ahmadi Jouybari, T. Copy to clipboard. Publish with us For authors Language editing services Submit manuscript. Search Search articles by subject, keyword or author. Show results from All journals This journal. Advanced search. Close banner Close. Email address Sign up. Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing.

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