How can I buy cocaine online in San Lorenzo

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How can I buy cocaine online in San Lorenzo

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How can I buy cocaine online in San Lorenzo

Recibido: 6 de septiembre de Aceptado: 28 de octubre de To achieve this, the scale was applied by interviewing cocaine users, of which met inclusion criteria for the final analysis. At the time of the study, all of the sample was under residential treatment between their 4 th and 12 th week and was distributed in 5 different institutions whose treatment model is grounded in the philosophy of Alcoholics Anonymous. After factor analysis was performed, the model was adjusted to three factors. Factor 1 referred to intention to use cocaine, factor 2 expressed desire for cocaine consumption, and factor 3 referred to positive expectancies for cocaine consumption. Key words: Craving, cocaine dependence, validation. Currently, cocaine is one of the most used drugs; according to the World Drug Report, 1 there are approximately 15 to Both substances have shown important increases in consumption incidence, according to the National Addiction Survey. Moreover, cocaine users are affected in their health and social functioning both in the short and long terms. These changes can lead to other health complications such as heart attacks, heart strokes, heart seizures, headaches and even induce coma on the long term. Prolonged use also leads to loss of appetite resulting in significant weight loss and malnutrition. In addition to health problems, cocaine users also experience problems related to their workplace and family. Cocaine users tend to restrict social relations and further commit criminal acts in order to procure the drug. On the other hand, changes in brain and its functioning are relevant and constitute the explanation for compulsive use. Nucleus accumbens Na and ventral tegmental area VTA have shown to be important in explaining addiction behavior due to their function as reward centers. Cocaine acts in the brain by blocking dopamine recapture in the synaptic gap in the nucleus accumbens. Due to this action, pleasure is experienced and cocaine use behavior is repeated, 5 through a positive reinforcement process. Craving in this sense, is presented as a phenomenon resulting from neuroadaptative changes in amygdale: environmental cues associated to cocaine use activate this structure which in turn activates VTA and Na. This activation stimulates prefrontal cortex, where planning, searching and using cocaine take place. Although it has not been demonstrated that craving is directly related with drug abuse and relapse, 6 it has been considered a cue element to take into account when developing and testing the efficacy of treatments on substance use disorders. There are many approaches that have tried to conceptualize what craving is, but there is not a unique and completely accepted definition. Since then, different approaches have been yielded in order to explain craving like the phenomenological perspective, conditioning models and cognitive theories. Conditioning models are based on conditioning theory, taking special relevance in environmental cues and conditioned and unconditioned responses. Cognitive theories also include concepts like memory, expectancies, interpretation and automatic behavior. Craving and urges to consume occur when the drug consumption automatic schema is interrupted by an unexpected event or when a substance user tries to stay abstinent. This approach is referred as cognitive processing model. Among the many existing conceptualizations of craving, there have been different efforts to measure it. The CCQ 7 is one of the most used tests to measure cocaine craving. CCQ was developed by using five dimensions that represent a multidimensional conception of the phenomenon: 1 desire to use cocaine; 2 anticipation of positive outcomes from cocaine use; 3 anticipation of relief from cocaine withdrawal symptoms or relief from negative mood; 4 intention and planning to use cocaine; 5 lack of control over use. CCQ general is constituted by 45 items distributed in a structure of four factors, and has a good internal consistency of 0. CCQ general has concurrent validity: total scores are associated with lower confidence in ability to quit using cocaine and greater frequency of use over the previous six months. The CCQ instrument has been used previously in Spanish speaking populations. Regarding validity, it was found that cocaine users reported higher levels of craving in the test than abstainers. Nevertheless, in Mexico there is an important lack of tests to measure cocaine craving. Due to this situation, our objective was to translate and validate «the CCQ general version» in order to have a reliable test for measuring this phenomenon in Mexican population. At the moment of the study, they were under residential treatment between their 4 th and 12 th week and were distributed in five different treatment facilities whose model is grounded on the philosophy of Alcoholics Anonymous. After initial assessments, it was determined that the participants did not suffer from any psychotic, maniac or depressive symptoms or cognitive damage that could impede them to solve the test. In this test, the respondent is asked to indicate how strongly he agrees or not with each of the sentences in every item. The Likert scale consisted of seven answer options going from 1 to 7 in which number 1 indicates total disagreement and number 7 means total agreement. The validation process consisted of three stages. Stage one consisted of translation in to Spanish of the original version of the CCQ General by 10 experts in the area of addiction research; this translation was then reviewed by three Spanish native speakers who speak English fluently and one native English speaker to verify equivalence between translations. In stage two, residential treatment centers were contacted in order to ask for the participation of the cocaine user population within each center. After this, in every center an interview process was conducted with support from psychiatrists to verify that all the inclusion criteria were accomplished by the participants. Information about the study and an informed consent form were given to all patients interested in participating in the study. In stage three, the instrument application was conducted with all participants in the treatment centers and, once it was finished, data analysis was made to know test reliability and factor structure. To determine whether the data were suitable for factor analysis, Kaiser's measure of sample adequacy was examined, obtaining an MSA rate of. All 45 items were measured through factor analysis with varimax rotation to obtain a three factor structure. We selected twelve items that show the least specificity for each factor table 3. All items had adequate factorial loadings equal or major than 0. Three factors and general test internal consistency coefficients were high and significant in all the cases. General standardized alpha was. The dispersion found between items inside factors and general instrument was low; therefore, integration and conceptual clarity obtained was adequate. The interfactor correlations ranged from. The objective of this study was to translate and validate the Cocaine Craving Questionnaire General version 7 to be used in Mexican population. The results found indicate that the psychometrical characteristics of the Mexican version of the Cocaine Craving Questionnaire General version are good. We found three factors that are similar to those pointed out by Tiffany. These three factors described a part of the five dimensions that constitute the original test: 1 desire to use cocaine; 2 anticipation of positive outcomes from cocaine use; 3 anticipation of relief from cocaine withdrawal symptoms or relief from negative mood; 4 intention and planning to use cocaine; 5 lack of control over use. An important issue to discuss is the fact that our test is constituted by 12 items and has still a very good internal consistency. Tiffany, Carter and Singleton 24 point out that one item scales are not sufficient to evaluate a multi dimensional construct such as craving, since they may not have a good internal consistency, no possibilities to calculate it and therefore, may lack validity. On the other hand, extended tests could be intrusive and cause craving states. Our test showed to have good reliability and has the advantage to be a short, practical scale, avoiding the intrusiveness present in longer tests. Limitations of this study include the lack of women in the sample, as well as the lack of a construct validity process. Future studies should include a variable related to craving in order to prove construct validity. It is also needed further research using the test to get a criterion validation. This validation could be reached by using the present questionnaire in a pharmacological protocol in order to measure the impact of anticraving drugs. ENA Global Health Risks: Mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks. Tiffany ST. Cognitive concepts of craving. The development of a Cocaine Craving Questionnarie. Anton RF. What is craving? Models and implications for treatment. Toneatto T. A Metacogonitive analysis of craving: implications for treatment. Drummond DC. Theories of drug craving, ancient and modern. Iraurgi I, Corcuera N. Jellinek EM. The «craving» for alcohol. The disease concept of alcoholism. Marlatt G, Gordon J. Relapse prevention. New York: Guilford Press; Tiffany S, Drobes D. The development and initial validation of a questionnaire of smoking urges. West R, Schneider N. Craving for cigarettes. The measurement of craving in cocaine patients using the Minnesota Cocaine Craving Scale. Development and initial validation of a measure of drinking urges in abstinent alcoholics. Development and validation of a new questionnaire to assess craving for alcohol. Kaiser HF. An index of factorial simplicity. Challenges in the manipulation, assessment and interpretation of craving relevant variables. Servicios Personalizados Revista. Similares en SciELO. Procedures The validation process consisted of three stages.

How can I buy cocaine online in San Lorenzo