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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Available data dealing with the sources, occurrence and removal of EPs within the MENA region in different categories of water is collected, presented and analyzed in this literature review. According to the collected database, the occurrence and removal efficiency of EPs in the water matrix in the MENA region is available, respectively, for 13 and six countries of the 18 in total; no available data is registered for the rest. Altogether, EPs have been observed in different water matrices across the MENA countries, stemming mainly from industrial effluents, agricultural practices, and discharge or reuse of treated wastewater TWW. Pharmaceutical compounds figure among the most frequently reported compounds in wastewater, TWW, surface water, and drinking water. Nevertheless, pesticides are the most frequently detected pollutants in groundwater. Overall, pharmaceuticals, organic compounds, and pesticides are the most concerning EP groups. The review revealed the ineffectiveness of treatment processes used in the region to remove EPs. Negative removals of some EPs such as carbamazepine, erythromycin, and sulfamethoxazole were recorded, suggesting their possible accumulation or release during treatment. This underlines the need to set in place and strengthen control measures, treatment procedures, standards, and policies for such pollutants in the region. Over the past 30 years, factors such as population growth, urbanization, and intensification of agriculture have substantially increased water abstraction, use and pollution in the MENA region. This has repercussions across various sectors of the economy World Bank , with the situation only deteriorating due to climate change Waha et al. Since a part of the installed capacity is either inoperational or ill-maintained, the portion of the wastewater receiving treatment is quite low, and goop part of it is discharged untreated into the environment. Pollution from industries and agriculture further exacerbates the problem. The challenges posed by the occurrence of, and the exposure to conventional pollutants such as nitrates or pathogens in the MENA region are relatively well-documented Hamed et al. However, data on the occurrence of EPs such as antibiotics, pharmaceuticals, personal care products PCPs , or hormones Geissen et al. There are numerous sources of EPs ranging from hospitals and industries to agriculture and households. A given EP could also have more than one source. For instance, human pharmaceuticals could enter the environment through blackwater from households, hospital effluents, and effluents from pharmaceutical industries; caffeine could come from graywater, blackwater, and hospital effluents, while phenols could come from industrial activities and graywater. Graywater is generated from household sources water from kitchens, bathing, washing clothes, and handwashing , and includes all sources other than toilets which is considered as blackwater Craddock et al. Toxicity tests conducted under controlled laboratory conditions for different types of EPs Della Greca et al. For example, the antibiotic ciprofloxacin has been found in high concentrations 6. Other EPs such as carbamazepine are persistent and tend to accumulate in the environment, increasing toxicity hazard. EPs also typically appear as a complex mixture, which can often lead to undesirable synergistic effects Brain et al. Compounding the problem is the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria ARB which has been linked to the occurrence of antimicrobials in water and wastewater, posing a major public health concern Marti et al. The presence of EPs in water and wastewater in other regions with similar characteristics and the associated potential negative effects on human health and the environment thus underlines the need for a better understanding of their occurrence, sources, and fate in the MENA region. This review outlines the current knowledge on the occurrence of different EPs in wastewater, environmental waters and drinking waters in different countries in the MENA region, and discusses their sources and potential exposure pathways, with a focus on irrigation. The removal efficiency of different EPs in the treatment plants implemented at a full-scale level in the same region is also evaluated. The initial bibliographic search analyzed 14, papers in the Scopus database in the period between and September , encompassing the very first EP monitoring initiatives as well as studies conducted on EPs in the region. Studies were examined step-by-step based firstly on their titles, then the abstracts and finally the full texts. Search terms were selected in a way to ensure that all potentially relevant articles are accessed. The initial search utilizing the titles resulted in the pre-selection of studies. Abstracts—the summary of the publications—were then used for studies selection. Eligible studies including relevant description in the abstracts are subject to full-text evaluation. Abstracts that did not focus on water or the countries assessesd in this review were excluded. After analyzing the abstracts, studies were selected to examine the full text. The search identified a total of 89 studies, published from to September , involved in our final database. The extracted data were compiled in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. The data were classified by water type and EP group. Fourteen studies from our final database were used to calculate the EP removal efficiency—if it had not been calculated by the authors—for 79 compounds in wastewater treatment plants WWTPs in the MENA region. This review classified EPs into different groups based on Sousa et al. Since some of these groups are not mutually exclusive, we listed some of the compounds in more than one EP group to avoid ambiguity Table 1. EPs are known for their risk to the environment and human health. An assessment of such risk factors is mostly based on the persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity of the EPs Rachel and Enda Substances that are toxic present a greater hazard when they are both persistent and bioaccumulative Arnot and Gobas Persistence, a widely used parameter for EP prioritization and hazard characterization, is expressed in hours, days, or years and refers to the time that it takes an EP in the soil to change half of its mass to a different form or compound UNEP Data on the persistence of EPs in soil are available mostly for pharmaceutical and personal care products PCPs and pesticides Boxall et al. Globally, there is a dearth of literature on regulations surrounding the presence of some EPs as well as pharmaceuticals in water Virkutyte et al. Table SI1 depicts available thresholds for EPs in drinking water, surface water, and groundwater in some countries in and beyond MENA region, together with their persistence in the environment. None of these regulations or guidelines have included EPs for agricultural water reuse, except phenols expressed as total phenol where thresholds are set by Oman 0. Our screening process resulted in 89 papers selected for our review. Figure 1 presents the number of studies reviewed by groups of EPs which shows that pharmaceuticals, pesticides, phenols, organic compounds, and food additives were the most frequently studied and reported compounds. Number of publications dealing with the monitoring of different groups of EPs from to September in wastewater, TWW, surface water, groundwater, and drinking waters in the MENA region. Between and , there was scant research on the topic Fig. Since , however, research in this field has gained great momentum globally, yet studies in the MENA region continue to be limited. Year-wise distribution of 89 published studies drawn from a database from to September dealing with the monitoring of EPs in wastewater, TWW, surface water, groundwater, and drinking waters in the MENA region. Egypt, Israel, and Tunisia registered the highest number of studies. Notably, this review is limited by a paucity or lack of studies in the majority of MENA countries, in part due to the lack of sensitive, selective, precise, and automatic methods Lorenzo et al. Medians and variations are disclosed to give an idea of the typical values and distribution for EPs in water. The relevant cases are then discussed in the text with emphasis on sources and concentrations of specific EPs. The subsections below illustrate the occurrence of EPs in wastewater, environmental waters, and drinking waters, wherein the concentrations, main sources, and the removal efficiency of EPs in implemented WWTPs in the MENA region are presented. A total of 99 EPs, including one food additive, 57 types of pharmaceuticals, eight types of PCPs, four types of hormones, 25 types of pesticides, and one type of plasticizer and two types of phenols, were investigated in raw wastewater. Concentrations of the 20 most-studied EPs in individual samples of raw wastewater are given in Fig. Eight pharmaceutical compounds were among the 20 most frequently studied EPs in raw wastewater. Caffeine has been detected in graywater and hospital and WWTP influents. There is greater interest in controlling pesticides in surface and groundwater than in raw wastewater as they are more likely to be exposed to such pollutants from agriculture. However, the presence of high levels of pesticides in raw wastewater is nevertheless worrying. The lowest concentration was detected in graywater in Palestine while the highest concentration in influents was found in six WWTPs in Israel Dotan et al. According to our bibliographic database, EPs were detected in TWW derived from WWTPs in the MENA region, including three types of food additives, 80 types of pharmaceuticals, five types of PCPs, three types of hormones, 14 types of pesticides, two organic compounds, eight types of plasticizers, two phenols, and one illicit drug see Fig. Significantly, TWW in most cases is reused for irrigation of green areas, farms, trees n public parks, or fields or groundwater replenishment. The highest concentrations of pharmaceuticals in TWW were reported for atenolol, carbamazepine, and sulfamethoxazole in Saudi Arabia; carbamazepine, diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen in Jordan; and erythromycin in Tunisia Table SI3. The variation could be linked to varying levels of consumption across the countries coupled with the properties of these compounds and the treatment processes adopted. Certain metabolites of parabens are toxic to plant growth and development Cecchi et al. The highest levels of methlyparaben were recorded in Tunisia and of propylparaben in Saudi Arabia Hassine et al. Triclosan is an important antibacterial compound that is commonly used in hand soaps and industrial products such as toothpaste and antiseptic wipes Daniel et al. It is a toxic compound characterized by its potential to create antibiotic resistance in bacteria Gao et al. This TWW is used for different purposes, including irrigation of crops and green areas, groundwater recharge, or even indirect potable reuse in many countries across MENA Alahmad and Alawi, ; Fries et al. Nevertheless, there are several potential environmental and health-related risks associated with this practice. EPs are capable of reaching surface water via many different pathways: agricultural activities, treated or untreated municipal wastewater, industrial effluents, human excretion, and domestic activities Moreno-Gonzalez et al. According to our bibliographic database, 84 different EPs were found in surface water in the MENA region, including 32 types of pharmaceuticals, 30 types of pesticides, one food additives, 5 PCPs, one plasticizer, two phenols, one microplastic, and 12 types of other organic compounds. The concentration levels of the 20 most-investigated EPs in individual samples of surface water are given in Fig. The data is presented in detail in Supplementary Table SI4. While the EPs in Fig. Walli reported an extreme case of industrial pollution of A high concentration 9. A later investigation in the same river by Gdara et al. Fandi et al. The sum of the so-called indicator PCBs registered the highest concentration of 0. According to the previously cited studies, wastewater is a major contributor to surface water contamination by phenols, PAHs, and PCBs Fandi et al. Our dataset also revealed the presence of caffeine in different surface water bodies Buerge et al. The presence of caffeine typically indicates the strong influence of domestic wastewater on the quality of surface water Viviano et al. While this study classifies caffeine under food additives, it could also emanate from pharmaceuticals. A range of pharmaceutical compounds was also detected in surface water, of which carbamazepine is one of the most studied. It is characterized by its high persistence in diverse environmental matrices due to its low sorption and biodegradability Bahlmann et al. A later study by Al-Mashaqbeh et al. Pesticides too have been detected in surface water. DDT was detected in numerous river waters used for irrigation and drinking in Lebanon Badr et al. The agricultural activities around surface water sources have been reported to be the main sources of pesticides. Indeed, the massive and uncontrolled use of pesticides observed in some MENA countries like Lebanon only aggravates the situation Helou et al. Bisphenol A BPA is a plasticizer commonly used as a stabilizer and antioxidant in the production of plastics and food packaging Chen et al. Human toxicity and ecotoxicity have been observed in the case of this compound over the past several years Rochester However, it is among the most well-documented chemicals reported in surface waters, although such studies in the MENA region are rare. Its major sources are wastewater effluents and direct discharge of untreated wastewater into surface water Fries et al. Aquatic predicted no-effect concentration PNEC values for BPA are available for several organisms like crustaceans, rotifers, insects, fish, algae, and aquatic plants. Selvaraj et al. Ninety-seven different EPs were observed in groundwater in the region, including one food additive, 12 types of pharmaceuticals, four types of PCPs, 39 types of pesticides, one plasticizer, 11 types of phenols, and 29 types of other organic compounds. Detailed information is presented in Supplementary Table SI5. The concentration levels of the 20 most-investigated EPs in the individual samples of groundwater are shown in Fig. The province is considered a major hotspot of pesticide use in Lebanon, with agricultural practices being the main source of groundwater contamination Helou et al. Chbib et al. Since people use this groundwater for both irrigation and drinking purposes Helou et al. Although agriculture is an important source of pesticide contamination, pesticide manufacturing too can cause localized spikes in concentrations. Khadhar et al. Samples collected close to industrial areas and wastewater discharge locations were observed to have the highest concentrations of PAHs and PCBs. The practice of reusing TWW in agriculture Elgala et al. Triclocarban too was detected in groundwater samples in the Jericho Governorate Palestine with a concentration level of Off-grid graywater treatment systems are in use in the studied zone; hence, the treated graywater used for irrigation could be the potential source of groundwater contamination with pharmaceutical compounds Craddock et al. Access to safe drinking water is a vital social and environmental requirement. When drinking water does undergo contamination by EPs, the main agents are surface and groundwater pollution. Despite the importance of drinking water control, a study of the phenomenon in the MENA region first appeared as late as and even then dealt only with the presence of PAHs in drinking water in Iraq Mohammed et al. Nine EPs were reported in drinking water tap water and bottled drinking water in the region, including four pharmaceuticals ibuprofen, ketoprofen, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin , three PCPs methylparaben, propylparaben, butylparaben , one plasticizer BPA , and one organic compound PAH. The EPs investigated in individual samples of drinking water are given in Supplementary Table SI6 along with their concentration. Finished drinking water samples from drinking water treatment plants in Algeria and Iraq were tested for pharmaceutical compounds by Kermia et al. Sixteen priority PAHs were found in drinking water in Iraq in concentrations varying from 8. Given their possible direct impact on human health, these levels of BPA are worrying. The information on the percentage of removal using secondary, tertiary, and extensive systems is provided as supplementary information Table SI7. The removal efficiency of the most-studied EPs—caffeine, carbamazepine, ciprofloxacin, diclofenac, erythromycin, estriol, estrone, and sulfamethoxazole—in existing WWTPs using varying treatments and technologies are given in Table 2. The removal efficiencies presented in Table SI7 and Table 2 are derived or calculated from the collected data, using concentrations of investigated EPs before and after treatment using the following formula:. Soil-aquifer treatment SAT is seldom used as an extensive system. Data on the EP removal efficiency of WWTPs is available for 79 compounds, with their concentrations in influent and effluent wastewater being distributed as follows: 61 pharmaceuticals, three hormones, three pesticides, six food additives, four illicit drugs, one phenol, and finally, one plasticizer. The same deduction is valid for carbamazepine elimination in WWTPs using AS process, where different removal efficiencies were recorded by Moslah et al. The low removal rates for carbamazepine may be linked to the low water solubility, low sorption and low biodegradability of the compound, and by consequence its high persistence in diverse environmental matrices and high resistance to treatment Bahlmann et al. However, the removal efficiency of ciprofloxacin was found to be varying, with up to This could be due to dissimilarity in the influent origin, where the new WWTP received a major part of domestic and hospital wastewater while the old WWTP was limited to receiving tankers of septic tanks. Since influent wastewater characteristics differ molecular weight, biodegradation, natural or anthropic origin, hydrophobicity, etc. However, Harrabi et al. Ciprofloxacin persists in activated sludge samples since it is a non-volatile compound Batt et al. However, large amounts of organic matter in activated sludge may block the sunlight and therefore dampen the photochemical degradation Kulkarni et al. These possible conditions could explain the lower removal efficiency of ciprofloxacin in the WWTP of Sfax. The treatment processes, the capacity of a WWTP to match the pollutant heaviness coupled with the pollutant characteristics, especially biodegradability, are therefore key factors to reach satisfactory removal rates of EPs. According to Alahmad and Alawi and Al-Tarawneh et al. The best removal results of Secondary treatment is considered to be adequate for both estriol and estrone removal. The removal rates ranged from Removal efficiency did not exceed Other studies in the literature have also observed negative removal efficiency for SMX Bendz et al. More serious negative removal rates for SMX were reported as According to Nas et al. This could be due to an accumulation of micro-contaminants in biological sludge without real degradation and their transmission by far Jelic et al. Tertiary treatment has the potential to improve the removal efficiency of SMX. According to our database, EPs have been reported all over the MENA region in raw wastewater, TWW, surface water, groundwater, and drinking water; nevertheless, the distribution in time and space of these data is quite heterogeneous and patchy. There are no consistent monitoring programs at the national or the regional MENA level which allow for the development of time series for the analysis of trends for a given EP in a given water type of water body. The paucity of data in the majority of MENA countries is chiefly driven by the lack of proper legislation and capacities. The monitoring of EPs is costly and requires knowledge and skills and sophisticated analytical equipment, protocols, and procedures to analyze EPs, by being able to detect pollutants at a very low concentration in different water matrices Lorenzo et al. Furthermore, proper monitoring requires the capacity to store, process, and interpret data to inform policy and practice through evidence. Many MENA countries do not yet have these capacities, nor the regulations that make monitoring compulsory. Recently, Al-Maadheed et al. Due to the lack of consistent monitoring, reported data on EPs remains limited. Nevertheless, the scientific community and general public are increasingly becoming more aware of the presence of EPs in drinking water and the aquatic environment, along with the associated risks Hendry, This increase in knowledge is driving a change, with the number of studies dealing with EPs in water increasing, as visible as a trend in Fig. Although some EPs like caffeine may be naturally present in environmental waters, the occurrence of EPs is mainly due to increasing pollution loads from anthropic sources such as cities, agricultural activities, and industries. Wastewater, livestock waste, and agricultural drainage lead to a concentration of residues from pharmaceuticals, pesticides, microplastics, PCPs, and other EPs. As shown in our database, raw municipal wastewater in the MENA region has been reported to concentrate pesticides like endosulfan or DDT, pharmaceuticals such as acetaminophen, ibuprofen, paracetamol, naproxen, diclofenac, or carbamazepine, and other pollutants. The limited actual treatment of these wastes and wastewater in many MENA countries results in a large portion of these EPs making their way to water bodies, in turn increasing the risk of exposure downstream. Even in the cases where wastewater is collected and treated, the removal efficiency for EP in existing WWTPs is at best limited. Activated sludge in particular, which is the most commonly used technology in MENA, is inadequate in its effectiveness in the removal of most EPs. CAR, ERY, and SMX appear to be the hardest compounds to eliminate utilizing existing secondary treatments; at times, even negative removals were observed. The negative removal of pharmaceutical compounds could be a result of the persistence Gulkowska et al. Better removal rates are achieved with tertiary treatment for certain EPs, but the performance of different technologies is very inconsistent and heterogeneous. As a result, it is difficult to find cost-effective combinations of technologies that work well for all or most of the EPs. The reported removal efficiency for the same compounds by the same combination of technologies is at times different. Caffeine is a case in point. The most-studied waterborne EP, there are a total of 59 data points for caffeine concentration in different types of water in the MENA region. Figure 8 shows the aggregated data for different water types across the MENA. Concentration in tertiary effluents is similar to the concentration reported in surface waters across MENA. Mokh et al. EPs from deficiently treated or non-treated waste and wastewater contribute to polluting the receiving waters, which may have significant health implications for water users downstream. Humans may be exposed to these waterborne EPs, by drinking polluted water or by using polluted water in food production, processing, and preparation. MENA is one of the most water-scarce areas in the world; as a response to this, it is also a region with many projects facilitating the direct use of treated wastewater in irrigation. Nevertheless, even in these countries, the quality of the reused water is very heterogeneous and in most cases, the existing treatments have limited removal capacities to treat EPs. There are also numerous informal instances of direct use of untreated wastewater in agriculture where farmers take wastewater directly from sewerage systems to irrigate. The most common practice, however, is the indirect reuse of untreated or partially treated wastewater, wherein the wastewater is released into surface water, diluted, and subsequently reused, e. A typical regional example of this practice is the irrigation along the Nile and the Nile delta. There is increasing evidence that pharmaceutical compounds, PAHs, PCBs, and pesticides can accumulate in TWW irrigated soil, as illustrated in the case of Nabeul, Tunisia, where water reuse has been prevalent in agriculture for more than 30 years Fenet et al. The long-term health effects of EPs in sites where wastewater treated or not is used directly or indirectly in agriculture are still not well-documented. Sewage sludge, which is a by-product of wastewater treatment, tends to accumulate the EPs and ends up becoming a pathway to the dispersion of the EPs in the environment when such sewage sludge is reused in agriculture. Surface and groundwater receive the EPs not only from municipal wastewater but also through agriculture e. Groundwater contamination with EPs may have long-term and hard-to-revert impacts Neshat and Pradhan, The long residence time of EPs in certain types of aquifers, like fossil aquifers or confined aquifers where pollution persists for tens or hundreds of years, can make water unsafe for extensive periods of time. If we consider the use of many such aquifers for drinking purposes, the issue becomes even more worrying and calls for strong precautionary measures to protect the aquifers in the first place. Such levels are disturbing, if this water is used in irrigation of crops to be eaten raw, and indeed, dangerous in the case of water bodies used for bathing and drinking water. While our results show an increasing number of studies lately on water-borne EPs in the MENA region, it is important to keep raising awareness about the occurrence of potential long-term risks associated with uncontrolled EPs disposal in the environment. As the MENA countries become increasingly aware of the issue and start transitioning to a more comprehensive set of water quality norms that include EPs, they will need to undertake priority setting, select EP indicators based on defined criteria such as occurrence and exposure, persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity along with conducting environmental and health risk assessments Mansour et al. The countries should then progressively build their capacities to robustly monitor these priority EPs. This includes not only the development of accredited and well-equipped labs but also building the capacity to store, process and interpret data to inform policies and practices. The WWT technologies that have been considered effective for traditional pollutants such as COD, nitrogen, or pathogens have not proven effective in removing several EPs in MENA, these findings are in agreement with worldwide studies Zhang et al. A selection of more effective technologies is required for the better elimination of EPs and achieving safer water reuse in the region. Carbamazepine is among the pollutants which need to be considered well for removal improvement during treatment in WWTPs in the region, using more suitable processes. Wastewater treatment is one option to address water pollution from EPs, but a combination of solutions works better than wastewater treatment alone. Pollution can be prevented at the source by not only effecting a change in consumption and production patterns e. Exposure to EPs can be managed through, for example, drinking water treatment in conjunction with adopting safe water practices in food production and processing since there is a potential formation of new compounds e. Data on the EPs control in environmental, raw, and drinking waters are even now sparse and scattered. Many countries in the region have had no studies done on waterborne EPs. Nevertheles, despite the paucity of data, there is increasing evidence highlighting the presence of EPs in waters across the region. Pharmaceutical compounds are among the top reported compounds. In groundwater, 97 different types of EPs have been reported with pesticides as the most frequent ones. The occurrence of EPs in groundwater is particularly disquietening since the retention times of the pollutants in groundwater are larger than in other water bodies; even if pollution loads are arrested, the EPs may take years to be removed. There is anecdotal evidence that the concentration of EPs has at times reached beyond safe limits. Fifty-seven cases of waters used, or potentially used, for drinking purposes have been reported to have a concentration of EPs that surpass the tolerable limits for drinking water. Despite the available studies on EPs in water, the problem is nevertheless not fully characterized. Indeed, the reported occurrences may be only the tip of the iceberg. More studies are necessary for a stronger assessment of the contamination status of different types of water bodies. Given the large portion of the generated wastewater in the MENA countries which is directly or indirectly reused in irrigation, the exposure pathways to EPs through the use of contaminated water in food production merits special attention. Removal efficiency differs significantly by the treatment technology and type of EP. Tertiary treatment improves the elimination of many EPs, but this improvement is inadequate for some pollutants e. The construction and operation of tertiary treatment are costly processes; many MENA countries may face fiscal challenges in being able to implement such expensive treatments. The extent of the wastewater treatment coverage and the types of WWT and drinking water treatment technologies in the MENA region are far from sufficient to effectively address the health risks posed by the EPs. Given the limited financial capacities of the middle- and low-income MENA countries, and the limited effectiveness of EPs removal by the tertiary treatments, it is not practical nor affordable to promote wastewater coverage with treatment as the only way to address waterborne EPs. Instead, we recommend prioritizing a more cost-effective combination of solutions that includes a change in consumption and production patterns to prevent pollution at the source, wastewater treatment expansion to the extent required for conventional pollutants including pathogens, adoption of good irrigation practices, and universal coverage of drinking water treatment. Since it is one of the first such comprehensive reviews of the sources, occurrence and removal efficiency of EPs in the MENA countries, this study could serve as baseline data to design future water resource monitoring programs in the region. Apart from addressing the data and geographical gaps, such future monitoring programs can focus their attention on the EPs which emerging evidence indicate to be posing higher health risks. Imen Haddoui contributed in data curation, conceptualization, methodology, validation, visualization, writing, reviewing and editing. Javier Mateo-Sagasta contributed in conceptualization, methodology, supervision, validation, writing, reviewing and editing. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. Find articles by Imen Haddaoui. Find articles by Javier Mateo-Sagasta. Received Mar 8; Accepted Sep 11; Issue date Open in a new tab. ESM 1 Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel. Carbamazepine, caffeine, naproxen, atenolol, ibuprofen, gemfibrozil, diclofenac. Triclosan, diethyl-meta-toluamide DEET , parabens,benzylparaben, butylparaben. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs , polychlorinated biphenyls PCBs , chlorinated hydrocarbons, perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances PFASs , volatile organic compounds butylbenzene, m-xylene …. Tonalide, galaxolide, DEET, benzophenone, oxybenzone, parabens,benzylparaben, butylparaben,methylparaben. Carbamazepine, ibuprofen, paracetamol, atenolol, lidocaine, clarithromycin, nacetylsulfamethoxazol NACS.

A review on occurrence of emerging pollutants in waters of the MENA region

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The World Wonder of Petra got that designation for a reason. Out of the seven, it falls just behind Machu Picchu as my favorite. With its mystical history steeped in Nabataean, Byzantine, and Roman roots, Petra is a surreal place, sure to impress any type of traveler. Petra combines its its storied past with breathtaking natural landscapes. Even with all of the hype surrounding it, Petra truly blew me away. It should be the highlight of any Jordan travel itinerary. However, I also feel like I had a perfect experience at Petra. I visited well before the crowds of tourist buses and hordes of local vendors could dampen the mystique. If you plan on visiting Petra on your own without a guide, this will contain everything you need to know before your visit, from the logistics of getting to Petra, to the perfect itinerary to see all the highlights without having to squeeze through sweaty tourists. Read on to make sure you have an incredible experience at this World Wonder. And hey, if this post helps you out, show some love and support for the blog and help keep my adventures going by buying me a beer! My adventures are entirely self-funded, so any show of support is greatly appreciated. It allows me to keep providing free travel guides and creating travel content to help you all travel the world. This post contains affiliate links. That means that I may earn a commission if you make a purchase through these links. The first step is to fly into Jordan. Skiplagged is a great resource for finding cheap flights. Queen Alia International Airport in Amman is the main gateway to the country, and from there, you can proceed to Petra using other modes of transportation. From Wadi Rum, the journey takes about the same amount of time. Jordan has a reliable and affordable public bus network that connects major cities and tourist destinations. You can take a public bus from Amman to Wadi Musa, the nearest town to Petra, and then use local transportation to reach the archaeological site. The bus company in Jordan that I found most reliable was Jett Bus. There are also minibuses that go to Wadi Musa. These usually run based on demand as opposed to set schedules. Renting a car provides the flexibility to explore the region at your own pace. Several car rental agencies operate in Jordan, and you can rent a car from Amman or other major cities to drive to Petra. The highways are well-maintained and for the most part, pretty empty. Hiring a private car or taxi is a convenient option, especially if you prefer a direct and comfortable journey to Petra from major cities such as Amman, Aqaba, or Wadi Musa. Make sure to negotiate the fare beforehand or arrange for a reliable transportation service. Lastly, there is the option of booking a guided tour. Joining a guided tour is a popular and convenient option for many travelers, as it provides transportation, guided exploration of the site, and insights into the history and culture of Petra. Many tour operators offer day trips or multi-day tours that include transportation, meals, and guided excursions. I loved exploring Petra at my own pace with two of my friends. We passed by massive tour groups on our way out of the archaeological site and was beyond glad that we decided to experience the journey on our own. Petra is the name of the archaeological site, and one cannot actually stay in Petra. The closest town to Petra is Wadi Musa, with many hotels and accommodation options right at the doorstep of Petra Archaeological Site. When picking a hostel, I chose Nomads Hotel. I had just spent a few days in Wadi Rum without internet, so finding accommodation that doubled as a workspace was an essential. I ended up not getting much work done because shisha and wine on the rooftop proved to be too difficult to resist. I was traveling with friends so simply having a place to rest in between exploring Petra was the priority over making new travel buddies. The other main hostel in Wadi Musa is Rafiki Hostel. It seemed to have a more social vibe than Nomads, so I would recommend this hostel for solo travelers. For a full list of hostels in Petra, check out Hostelworld. For my fellow backpackers, the cost of entering Petra might be what deters them. Listen to me. It is worth every penny. Petra is a huge archaeological site that can take even the most fast-paced traveler days to fully explore. Petra is a huge archaeological site, and to see everything in one day would be exhausting. The two-day pass is only 5 JD more than the one-day pass, so the cost difference is almost negligible. Although having a guide will help you understand Petra, I enjoyed exploring Petra at my own pace. Here is a suggested itinerary for exploring Petra at your own pace in one day. I did all of this in two days, although we took plenty of time to enjoy coffee breaks and various viewpoints. We could have squeezed our two-day visit into one long day, but chose to explore at a slower pace. If you want to save money and avoid a multi-day ticket, follow this one-day Petra itinerary. Otherwise, just cut the day in half, ending at the viewpoint of the Treasury, and then starting the next day by hiking up to the High Point of Sacrifice. Start your day by arriving at the entrance right as it opens. This allows you to beat the crowds and beat the heat. It truly transformed the experience. This section takes about 30 minutes from the entrance to the star attraction of Petra. The iconic Treasury of Petra is perhaps synonymous with the archaeological site. In fact, it was the only picture I had seen of Petra before I came to visit the site myself. This gorgeous structure etched into the red-rocked canyon is worth the journey alone. Getting here early makes all the difference, though. The courtyard was empty when we arrived, adding to the surreal experience of being at this World Wonder. It was a far different scene as we walked back out in the afternoon, as the courtyard was jam-packed with tourists, vendors, camels, golf carts, and more. At the Treasury, there will be people charging you to climb up a little bit and get a better view. Next up, chug along the main route and head to the Monastery. Follow the signs up the mountains to reach the Monastery before the crowds arrive. This requires a steep hike, but I found it more impressive than the Treasury. The crowds here are smaller, as it is more difficult to get to from the main entrance. There is a back entrance that allows you to reach the Monastery without the steep hike uphill, but very few people take this route. From here, you can briefly visit the Great Temple and make a little detour to the Byzantine Church. It will only take about thirty minutes to get back down to the Roman Colonnade. Continue walking along the colonnade until you reach the strip of tombs. Hope your legs got some much-needed rest because we are going back up, up, up. Walk to the end of the colonnade and then veer left towards the tombs. You can even go inside a few of the tombs and get an idea of just how impressive these structures were. Follow the trail for 30 minutes. There are panoramic views of the site along the way to rest at, including a gorgeous view of the Roman Theater. We bought coffees for 2 JD each. Not a bad price to pay for a coffee with a view of a World Wonder. We stayed for over an hour just relaxing and taking in the views. Long day, hey? If you are, end your day here and come back tomorrow and start here. One can reach the trail from the Roman colonnade and veering left through the Great Temple. By now, the crowds will be in full force, and the Treasury will be flooded with tour groups, camels, vendors, and golf carts. Taking this route out of the site will help you avoid those crowds and the cramped walk back through the Siq. The trail is well-kept but with hardly anyone on it. The views were reminiscent of some national parks in Utah and Arizona. The surrounding canyons, mountains, and sandstone cliffs add to the allure of the site, making it a visually stunning and unforgettable experience. There is a museum just outside of the archaeological site that is filled with artifacts from the Nabataeans, Byzantines, and Romans. Afterwards, head back to your accommodation and relax after a long day. It was a wonderful way to wrap up our adventures in Petra. Petra can be grueling, especially once the heat starts to kick in. Sunscreen is a must. I also recommend bringing your own water, although water is sold throughout the site. The vendors are all cash-only, so be sure to bring sufficient cash for snacks and water. Bring cash just to be safe. Many of the best viewpoints and attractions require a steep hike. The Monastery is pure incline for nearly an hour, as is the viewpoint overlooking the Treasury. At the very least, wear sneakers. It will make your time in Petra much more enjoyable. All in all, Petra is as bucket-list worthy of a place as it gets. Follow along with these tips to make sure you have an unforgettable time at this World Wonder. If this post helped you out, show some love and support for the blog and help keep my adventures going by buying me a beer! It allows me to keep writing helpful guides to help you all travel the world on a budget. Skip to content The World Wonder of Petra got that designation for a reason. Share this: Twitter. Like this: Like Loading Loading Comments Email Required Name Required Website.

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