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Introduction: Drugs of abuse, such as cocaine, affect different brain regions and lead to pathological memories. These abnormal memories may occur due to changes in synaptic transmissions or variations in synaptic properties of neurons. It has been shown that cocaine inhibits delayed rectifying potassium currents in affected brain regions and can create pathological memories. This study investigates how the change in the conductance of delayed rectifying potassium channels can affect the produced action potentials using a computational model. In the simulations, by changing the delayed rectifying potassium conductance bifurcation diagram is calculated. Results: By decreasing the potassium current for a fixed stimulatory signal, burst-type action potentials can be generated. In the following and with a further reduction of potassium conductance, produced action potentials exhibit non-linear and even chaotic behaviors. Conclusion: Results show that for a specific range of potassium conductance, a chaotic regime emerges in produced action potentials. These chaotic oscillations may play a role in inducing abnormal memories. Highlights: Cocaine consumption reduces the potassium current in affected cells. Decreasing the potassium currents elicits burst action potentials. Produced bursts might have chaotic behaviors. Chaotic oscillations might be related to the toxic effects of cocaine. Plain language summary: Drugs of abuse such as cocaine can manipulate brain circuits and may form some pathological memories. These memories can lead to long-term addiction. Furthermore, these drugs also can have toxic effects on the cells. Researchers are looking for the mechanisms that can lead to abnormal memories and toxic effects of drugs. It seems that an efficient mechanism that can be used by drugs of abuse is the manipulation of potassium currents in the affected cells. Here, in a computational model, we have shown that changes in the conductance of delayed rectifying potassium channels can lead to nonlinear and even chaotic behaviors in the produced action potentials. These behaviors might have a role in drug toxic effects. Abstract Introduction: Drugs of abuse, such as cocaine, affect different brain regions and lead to pathological memories.
University Students’ Views Regarding Reasons for Drug Abuse Among Youths
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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. To self-medicate substance dependence, many substance users consume herbal medicines delivered in herbal medicine shops which are prepared through non-standard methods using a variety of different materials. Hence, the present study was carried out aiming to investigate and analyze the content of such herbal medicines. Four herbal medicine shops were selected from each of the 22 zones of Tehran City, Iran, and a total of 95 samples were purchased. A package containing 6 types of medication that was advertised by a satellite TV channel, was also purchased. Using high-performance liquid chromatography HPLC method, the samples were analyzed in the laboratory to detect different types of materials. Among the samples, 23 and 72 samples were uncovered compressed pills Dragon pills and capsules filled with colored powders handmade self-medicating substance dependence capsules , respectively. The package advertised in the satellite TV was prepared in 6 various forms. The findings of this study showed that handmade capsules and pills used for self-medicating substance dependence and also medicines advertised in the satellite TV channels contain different amounts of opioids, amphetamine, benzodiazepines, tramadol, codeine, and other substances that cause problems for substance users who are going to abandon substance abuse. Keywords: Substance withdrawal, Herbal medicine, Dragon, Component analysis, High-performance liquid chromatography. Drug addiction remedies are often provided and prescribed rudimentarily and unsafely by unprofessional individuals without observance of health issues and without any supervision on them. In some cases, herbalists are not aware of the ingredients and consider them to be safe, while it has been found that at least one chemical substance is used for the preparation of these medicines. Given the increasing use of non-standard herbal medicines provided by herbal medicine shops and advertised by satellite TV channels, this study was conducted with the aim to investigate and analyze the content of handmade pills and capsules used for self-medicating substance dependence. This study was conducted in in Tehran, the capital of Iran. Four herbal medicine shops were selected from each of the zones of Tehran and several pills or capsules were purchased from each shop. As the shop keepers did not provide all individuals with self-medicating substance dependence capsules or pills, the researchers asked several motorcycle rider ex-addicts who were treated to purchase the medicines. The treated ex-addicts were equipped with a voice recorder and all conversations were recorded all the time they were in the herbal medicine shop. Moreover, pills and capsules were chosen in a variety of colors and sizes. A total of 95 self-medicating substance dependence capsules or pills were bought from 88 herbal medicine stores and were delivered to Bahar laboratory Tehran, Iran. Furthermore, a package containing 6 types of medication that was advertised by a satellite TV channel was also purchased and sent to the laboratory. In the laboratory, the samples were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography HPLC to detect different types of opioids opium, opium extract, Sokhteh, Sokhteh extract, heroin, compressed heroin, and morphine powder , amphetamines, benzodiazepines, tramadol, codeine, and other substances. Then, the overall amount of each substance was expressed by rate and percentage. Characteristics of the samples: Of the 95 self-medicating substance dependence capsules and pills purchased from the herbal medicine shops in Tehran, 23 samples were uncovered compressed pills known as Dragon pills which were colored dark and light green, dark and light brown, white, and milky, each weighing 1. The self-medicating substance dependence package advertised by satellite TV channel, known as REXON, contained 6 types of medicine with a brochure written in Persian including instructions for their use. The package included a capsule green-yellow , a pill for depression or insomnia light blue , a jelly capsule for analgesia and hangover blue , a supplementary solution for hangover pink , an anti-temptation drops, and a detoxification solution or syrup Figure 3. Analysis of the samples: Table 1 shows the results of sample analysis. The most common substances present in all of the samples respectively were diphenoxylate, tramadol, opioids, acetaminophen, and codeine. In addition, the most common ingredients present in Dragon pills included tramadol, diphenoxylate, opioids, codeine, and acetaminophen, respectively; however, no trace of methadone was found. Moreover, the most common ingredients available in handmade capsules were diphenoxylate, tramadol, opioids, codeine, and acetaminophen, respectively. Rate of main substances including opioids, codeine, tramadol, diphenoxylate, and acetaminophen present in the illegal drugs for self-medicating substance dependence. The most common ingredients present in Dragon pills included tramadol, diphenoxylate, opioids, codeine, and acetaminophen, respectively. In addition, the most common ingredients present in handmade capsules respectively were diphenoxylate, tramadol, morphine, codeine, and acetaminophen. Furthermore, diphenoxylate, morphine, codeine, acetaminophen, benzodiazepine, and methadone were found in a large number of handmade capsules. Rahimi Movaghar et al. However, as reported by Rahimi Movaghar et al. For example, in the study conducted by Abasi and Nazeri, 2 the investigation was performed only on the samples that consumers were complaining about, while in the present study and the study by Rahimi Movaghar et al. In the study by Rahimi Movaghar et al. As stated by the producers of handmade drugs, herbalists use a variety of chemical compounds, most of which are addictive and psychoactive substances like diphenoxylate, acetaminophen codeine, amitriptyline, methadone, diclofenac, diazepam, clonidine, boosting capsules, and even 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine or ecstasy powder. In addition, many of these substances are controlled and are considered as abusive drugs. In addition, the prescription of any anonymous drug by anyone, even if a physician, is a violation of law. As substance abuse is different from other illnesses and is considered as a crime in Iran, substance users are less likely to refer to judicial centers and make a complaint; thus, those who provide this type of service, especially herbalists, are more prone to fraud and abuse. Finally, it can be stated that none of the handmade self-medicating substance dependence medicines and those advertised by the satellite TV channels were not usable for the treatment of substance dependency, and even a drug was not found to be eligible. Furthermore, because of the false belief that medicine treatment is the only possible method for self-medicating substance dependence, a culture of self-medication has emerged. Substance dependence capsules and pills supplied in herbal medicine shops and those advertised by satellite TV channels contain different amounts of opioids, amphetamine, benzodiazepines, tramadol, codeine, and other substances with the potential for causing complications among individuals who want to stop substance dependence through using such medications. None of the drugs present in the capsules and pills were capable of treating substance abuse and some of them could cause very severe complications. In addition, the herbalist that mixed the mentioned substances was not aware of drug interactions. Furthermore, mixing more than 5 drugs in a capsule can be a risk. Moreover, the use of high amounts of tramadol is associated with the risk of convulsion; therefore, a substance abuser who does not receive any instruction for taking these medications may also be at risk of convulsion. Hence, health policymakers and authorities not only must prevent the supply of such drugs, but also must have more supervision over herbal medicine shops and enhance the public awareness on the use of self-medicating substance dependence medicines advertised by satellite TV channels. As one of the weaknesses of this study, a self-reported questionnaire was not used to investigate the effect of the self-medicating substance dependence medicineson substance abusers who used such medications. Moreover, it was not possible to investigate handmade medicines supplied in other cities of the country. However, as one of the strengths of this study, medicines advertised by satellite TV channels were analyzed and compared with handmade herbal medicines prepared by herbalists. The results of field studies have shown that the sale of medicines advertised by satellite TV channels is significant. In addition, in this study, 4 samples were obtained from each of the municipality zones which were more than the number of samples obtained and analyzed in the study performed by Rahimi Movaghar et al. The results of this study showed that none of the handmade self-medicating substance dependencemedicines and those advertised by satellite TV channels were usable for the treatment of substance dependency, and even a drug was not found to be eligible. The authors in this study appreciate all individuals who collaborated in the sample collection and also the Bahar laboratory staff who collaborated on the analysis of the samples. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Addict Health. Find articles by Hamid Reza Khoddami-Vishteh. Find articles by Hooman Narenjiha. Find articles by Roya Noori. Find articles by Azadeh Olyaei. Find articles by Afsaneh Fard-Sanei. Find articles by Monir Fekri. Find articles by Ali Farhoudian. Received Sep 13; Accepted Nov 8. Open in a new tab. Findings of component analysis of the illegal drugs for self-medicating substance dependence. Conflicts of Interest The Authors have no conflict of interest. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.
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