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Welcome to Afterglow, a newsletter that will change your mind. This week, we're going under the ecstasy with a research study that measured the mind-bending effects of MDMA on cephalopods. Dive in! Octopuses have a central brain that is surrounded by eight arms — each of which contains its own complex network of neurons that can function independently. Their advanced neural architecture, sensory abilities and complex behaviours make them one of the most intelligent and alien-like creatures in the ocean. But how could the neurocircuitry of an octopus reveal insights into human evolution and social behaviour? Researchers dosed octopuses with MDMA to find out. MDMA 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine is a psychoactive drug that affects serotonin levels in the brain. It is a synthetic compound that alters the levels of neurotransmitters involved in mood, perception and behaviour. The stimulant was first developed as Methylsafrylaminc by chemist Dr. The drug was intended as a parent compound to synthesise medications that control bleeding and a patent was issued in , but no pharmaceutical testing followed. Enter psychedelic chemist Alexander 'Sasha' Shulgin. It wasn't until the s that Shulgin learned of a 'special effect' caused by the drug, inspiring him to re-synthesise MDMA and dose himself in September The 'special effect' concerned how a mg dose will flood the brain with serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine — neurotransmitters related to emotional processing — and then prevent reabsorption in the body. Shulgin discovered that the drug produced feelings of euphoria, increased energy and heightened sociability. These effects are why MDMA is known as an empathogen generating a state of empathy or entactogen touching from within. But MDMA can also have negative side effects including anxiety, depression, paranoia and dehydration — and can lead to long-term changes in brain function if used frequently or in high doses. Shulgin published the first paper on the pharmacological action of MDMA in humans with David Nichols in after administering MDMA to Leo Zeff, who used it as an adjunct to psychotherapy and introduced it to other therapists. The drug garnered a small following among psychiatrists, despite it never undergoing formal clinical trials or receiving approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration FDA. It was believed MDMA enhanced communication during psychotherapy and allowed patients to achieve insights about their problems. Their recommendation to keep the therapeutic use of MDMA legal was rejected. They soaked the octopuses in an MDMA bath for 10 minutes, rinsed them with saline solution, then returned them to the partitioned tank for 30 minutes to observe their behaviour. The colour-changing 'bimac' cephalopod is asocial, meaning it likes to remain alone unless trying to find a mate. Despite their solitary nature, after being given MDMA they became more friendly and exploratory. The drugged octopuses relaxed their posture, moved their arms and somersaulted through the water as if dancing at a rave. They were observed spending significantly more time in the open chamber with the other octopus rather than hiding in their dens. They also touched and explored the other octopus in ways they had never been observed engaging in before. The researchers described the behaviour as 'cuddling'. This indicates that the octopus's brain structure, which is different to the mammalian brain, has a serotonin system that plays an important role in social interaction — just like humans. Most research on MDMA has been conducted in mice and rats, which respond similarly to people. Rodents and humans diverged evolutionarily around 75 million years ago, but million years separate us from octopuses. The invertebrate brain of an octopus does not have regions such as the cortex, nucleus accumbens and basal ganglia normally associated with complex interpersonal behaviour. Therefore any similarities are either deeply rooted or the result of convergent evolution, which means both octopuses and humans might have developed the same serotonergic trait separately. It is important to note that this was a small scale study and further research is needed to confirm these findings. Though octopuses might be good models for future drug studies, the prospect of drug testing on these intelligent creatures also raises ethical concerns. Octopuses are the only invertebrates granted special protections from injury and pain in research, and scientists still do not know whether giving drugs to cephalopods will cause them harm or not. But the study is fascinating because it might help us understand how ancient neurotransmitter systems are shared between vertebrate and invertebrate species. I'm finally reading the best-selling true crime book in history, written by the prosecutor of the Charles Manson trial for the Tate—LaBianca murders in Interestingly, some of the murder victims had the mescaline derivative MDA methylenedioxy-amphetamine in their system when they died. Sasha Shulgin worked with Chilean psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo, who tested the therapeutic efficacy of MDA, to study derivatives of the essential oils of nutmeg. Forward to a friend and let them know where they can subscribe. Subscribe to Afterglow Afterglow is a free weekly dose of mind-bending ideas. Sign up now! Check your inbox and click the link to confirm your subscription.

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