General Characteristics of Lexicology - Иностранные языки и языкознание курс лекций

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General Characteristics of Lexicology

The connection of lexicology with other branches of linguistics. Modern Methods of Vocabulary Investigation. General characteristics of English vocabulary. The basic word-stock. Influence of Russian on the English vocabulary. Etymological doublets.


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1. General Characteristics of Lexicology and English Vocabulary
the basic word-stock includes units of different parts of speech;
they express the most important ideas: terms of kinship, parts of human body, nature, food, man's activities, main qualities, etc.;
they are characterized by stability - most of the words have lived in the language for centuries;
they are characterized by high frequency;
the basic word-stock includes words of three main structural types: root-words, derivatives, compound words. Root-words make up the backbone of the basic word-stock;
the basic word-stock includes native and borrowed words (hand, wolf, face, officer);
words of the basic word-stock make a good building material for phraseologic units. For instance, to go is used in:
to go home «попасть в цель», to go back on one word / promise, to go into details, to go mad, to go one's own way, to go on a strike, to go out of date, to go out of one's mind, to go to bed, to go to school, and many others;
to make is used in: to make a bed, to make a date with a girl «назначить свидание», to make a long story short, to make a scene, to make the best of a bad job «делать хорошую мину при плохой игре», etc.
It is of course difficult to draw a borderline between the basic word-stock and the rest of the vocabulary.
7 0% of English vocabulary are borrowings as a result of war, trade, cultural and scientific contacts. Analyse some examples.
The word magazine has the following etymology: Fr. < It. < Arab. Arabian is the origin of this borrowing (The origin of the borrowing is the language in which the word was born.). French is the source of the borrowing (The source of the borrowing is the language from which it came directly into English).
Italian and Spanish words were often borrowed into the English language through French. The origin of alarm is Italian, the source is French. In French such words changed their pronunciation, spelling and grammatical form: It. al arm «к оружию» > Fr. alarm > E. alarm. Similarly comrade was borrowed from Spanish.
prefixes ending in consonants; as a consequence, double consonants (-bb-, - rr-, - ll-, - mm-, - ss-, - tt-, - cc-, - ff-, etc.) make a characteristic feature of Latin borrowings, e.g. abbreviate, irregular, illegal.
Words of Greek origin having the Latin source possess the following characteristic features:
y pronounced as [I]: synonym, symphony;
Greek and Latin morphemes gave new terms, e.g. telephone, television (Gk. tele «далеко»).
The new type of words - hybrids - appeared in the English language, i.e. words formed by etymologically different morphemes. For example, subway has two morphemes: L. sub - and E. - way.
5. Double vocabulary, i.e. pairs of stylistic synonyms. In each pair the neutral stylistic synonym is native, the bookish stylistic synonym is a French borrowing:
A student addressing a student would say, «I must tell you we'll have an exam in Lexicology this semester». The Dean would say to students: I'm going to inform you that you will have an examination in Lexicology this semester».
Foreign ideas can be borrowed and expressed by way of description:
ушанка - fur hat with earflaps that can be tied under the chin
купейный вагон - carriage divided into compartments having doors
плацкартный вагон - carriage divided into compartments having no doors, etc.
According to the number of morphemes in a word we distinguish between monomorphemic words consisting of one root morpheme (root words) and polymorphemic words. Polymorphemic words include derived words (derivatives) and compound words. Derived words (derivatives) consist of a root morpheme and one or more affixational morphemes. Compound words consist of two or more root morphemes, e.g. a do-it-yourself club («кружок «умелые руки»»), a round-world cruise, a black-and-white film. Thus in the English vocabulary there are three main types of words: 1) root words, 2) derivatives, 3) compound words.
Derivatives take the first place in number in the vocabulary, but root words make the backbone of the English vocabulary. In speech root words prevail as they are very important, they have a variety of meanings and a high lexical valency. For instance you could recall a lot of combinations including the root word get: to get a letter, to get ill, to get tired, to get hope, to get to the station, etc.
2. Adjective-forming suffixes are classified into the following groups:
suffixes expressing presence of some quality: - ful (hopeful), etc.;
suffixes expressing absence of some quality: - less (hopeless), etc.;
suffixes expressing connection with smth.: - al (political, historical)
suffixes expressing nationality: - ish (English, Spanish), - ian (Russian), etc.
3. Verb-forming suffixes express the change of quality: - ise (privatise), - ify (magnify), - en (shorten), etc.
4. Adverb-forming suffixes are classified into the following groups:
suffixes denoting the manner of action: - ly (nicely), - wise (othewise, clockwise), etc.;
suffix denoting direction: - ward(s) (homeward, backwards), etc.
5. Numeral-forming suffixes are classified into three groups according to the type of numeral they build.
1) Prefixes with negative meaning: un - (unjust), in - (and its allomorphs) (injustice, inexperienced), non - (non-productive, non-stop flight), etc.;
2) Prefixes denoting the reversal of an action (обратное действие) form verbs with the meaning «doing things the other way round»: un - (cf. lock - unlock, dress - undress, button - unbutton, load - unload, what is done cannot be undone (proverb), dis - (cf. arm - disarm, appear - disappear, cover - discover), de - (demilitarise, defrost), etc.;
ad - (going back to the Latin preposition ad «to», cf. L. ad patres «к праотцам», per aspera ad astra «через трудности к звездам»): adverb (i.e. added to the verb); add (where - d is the root morpheme). Ad - (like in-) has several allomorphs, which are formed through regressive assimilation: abbreviate, accustom, affirm, approve, appoint, arrange, assimilate, attract;
Prefixes denoting time: fore - (to foresee, to foretell), pre - (prewar, prerevolutionary, prehistoric), post - (post-war).
Prefixes denoting manner: mis - (misspell, mistake, misunderstand, mispronounce).
Prefixes denoting degree: under - «too little» (to underfeed, to underpay), over - «too much» (to overeat, to overdo (oneself) «перестараться», to oversleep (oneself) «проспать», to overhear; cf. meat underdone - meat overdone.
4) Prefix denoting repetition of an action: re - (rewrite, redevelop a centre «перестраивать центр»);
5) Prefix denoting views: pro - (pro-reform).
Affixes as well as words are native or borrowed. E.g. - hood, - dom, - ship, etc. are native affixes; - able, - ee, - ess, - ence / ance, - nik (sputnik), - ik (sundayik), etc. are borrowed affixes.
Words including etymologically different morphemes are called hybridsHy. bridism can be illustrated by words refusenik, renew, etc.
To give the definition of conversion as a way of word-building we must analyse its characteristic features. Cf. the word voice in the following sentences:
1. I hear her voice. - 2. The workers voice their protest.
Linguists pointed out grammatical features distinguishing voice 1 and voice 2. A.I. Smirnitsky pointed out that voice 1 and voice 2 have different paradigms (i.e. a set of grammatical forms). Voice 1 has only two forms in its paradigm: 1) voice, 2) voices. The paradigm of voice 2 includes many forms: 1) voice, 2) voices, 3) voiced, 4) is voicing, 5) has voiced, 6) is voiced, 7) will voice, etc. It shows that voice moved from noun paradigm to verb paradigm. Now that voice 1 and voice 2 have different paradigms they belong to different parts of speech.
I.V. Arnold pointed out the difference in their syntactical environment and function: voice 1 is an object, voice 2 is a predicate.
Besides, these words differ in their lexical meaning: voice 1 denotes a thing and voice 2 denotes an action.
So conversion is the making of a new word in a different part of speech with a diffe r ent syntactical environment and function, with a different lexical meaning, but without chan g ing the basic form of the original word.
Conversion differs from affixation as in affixation the basic form of the original word is changed, cf. teach - teacher. Conversion contrary to affixation is semantic derivation.
Some linguists (S.D. Katsnelson, M.A. Sternina, etc.) interpret conversion as categorial polysemy.
Formation of denominal verbs by conversion is extremely productive. Formation of deverbal nouns is not so productive, it has some restrictions.
There are three kinds of restrictions in the formation of deverbal nouns.
Morphological restrictions. Formation of deverbal nouns is productive with root monosyllabic words: to cut - a cut, to burn - a burn.
Semantic restrictions. Deverbal nouns are converted from the verbs that represent a number of isolated actions. E.g. to walk denotes the action which can be represented as a succession of a few steps, therefore the deverbal noun a walk is converted from it.
Phraseological restrictions. Some deverbal nouns are used only in certain contexts: He is not in the know («не в курсе дела»). He caught a great take of fish. It is of American make.
Formation of denonimal verbs has practically no restrictions: to star in a film, to beach a boat, to stomach an insult «проглотить обиду», to butterfly «слоняться по городу без дела», to surface «подняться на поверхность», to rendezvous in space «осуществить стыковку в космосе». Denonimal verbs can be converted even from compounds: to water-ski «кататься на водных лыжах», to weekend (somewhere), etc.
Nonce words (окказиональные слова). New words in a different part of speech can be created by way of conversion for one occasion only. They are termed nonce words. Nonce words are not registered in dictionaries, they die as soon as they have been created and used. Here are some nonce words:
- Dear … - Don't dear me! (Adj. V); He dears me! (Adj. V); He sirs me! (N V); - But … - No buts! (conjunction N). Even phrases can become a source of nonce words: They my-loved each other! (phrase V), etc.
Conversion and substantivation are alike - they are types of word-building in which a new word is built in a different part of speech without changing the basic form of the original word. Therefore some linguists, e.g. I.V. Arnold, claim that substantivation is a kind of conversion.
But there is some difference between conversion and substantivation. In conversion the word acquires a new paradigm, a new syntactical function and environment at once, while in substantivation they are acquired gradually, through a very long use for centuries.
So the way from an adjective or participle to a substantivised noun is very long and some adjectives and participles are at present only on halfway to noun, i.e. they have acquired not all, but only some features of a noun. This phenomenon is termed partial substantivation. For example the young, the rich, the poor can be used to describe many people, but if we want to speak about one person we must add the word man: a rich man, a poor man, a young man. So the adjectives young, rich, poor are partially substantivised as they have acquired only a few features of a noun: they can be used with the definite article and have syntactical functions of a noun. But they cannot be used with the definite article and have neither plural nor possessive forms. The substantivised participle the coloured has acquired, apart from syntactical features of a noun, two morphological features of a noun: it is used with the indefinite article and has the plural form: the coloureds. But this substantivised participle cannot be used with the indefinite article to describe one person. To express this idea we should add the word man: a coloured man.
Word-composition is the formation of words by joi ning together two or more stems
Word-composition is a productive type of word-building. Compared with other languages English word-composition has some specific features:
1) stems of English compounds are mainly free morphemes (e.g. headmaster, schoolmaster, etc.), while in Russian compounds stems are mainly bound morphemes (cf. railway - железнодорожный);
2) the majority of English compounds have two stems, while German compounds can consist of many more stems.
The problem arises as compound words and word-groups display similarity: structural, phonetical and graphical similarity.
1. Structural similarity is displayed in the following. 1) Both compound words and word-groups consist of free elements (free morphemes): in compound words they are stems, in word-groups they are words. 2) Many compound words and word-groups are built after the same patterns: Adj. + N (cf. blackbird - black bird); N + N (cf. ice-cream - cream cake); V + N (cf. pickpocket - pick flowers), etc.
To begin with we shall compare two units: the free word-group dirty board «грязная доска» and the compound word blackboard «классная доска». The free word-group admits of some changes which show that components of a free word-group are structurally independent and separable: 1) components of the free word-group dirty board can be separated, we can say a dirty black board; 2) each word can be replaced by some other word, e.g. long board, dirty table; 3) an intensifier can be added to the first word, e.g. very dirty board. All this shows that components of a free word-group are independent, i.e. they possess structural separability.
On the other hand components of the compound word blackboard cannot be separated. We cannot describe the classroom object called blackboard as « black and large board »,» very blackboard », or « greyboard ». Consequently we can conclude that compound words are characterised by structural inseparability, while free word-groups are characterised by structural separability. So the criterion of structural inseparability helps distinguish between a compound word and a word-group.
Phonetically there are three types of compound words.
1) Compound words of the first type («classical compounds») possess the unity stress. They are easily distinguished from word-groups which are as a rule characterised by the level stress; cf. 'blackbird «дрозд» - 'black 'bird «черная птица»; 'blackberry «черная смородина, ежевика» - 'black 'berry «черная ягода».
2) Compound words of the second type possess the double stress: 'blue-jacket (sailor), 'red-?coat (a British soldier of old times), 'baby-sitter. The double stress can serve as a criterion in distinguishing compound words and free word-groups because the latter are characterised by the level stress.
3) Compound words of the third type as well as word-groups possess the level stress, cf. 'black-'eye «синяк» - 'black 'eyes; the level stress characterises compound adjectives: 'easy-'going, 'new-'born, etc.
So not all the types of compound words can be distinguished from word-groups on the basis of the phonetical criterion; this criterion is most suitable for the first type, i.e. classical compounds characterised by the unity stress. The unity stress shows that compound words are characterised by phonetical inseparability.
Graphically three types of compound words are distinguished.
1) Classical compounds are characterised by solid spelling, e.g. blackboard.
2) Compounds of the second group are spelt with a hyphen, e.g. blue-jacket, red-coat, baby-sitter.
3) Compounds of the third group are spelt with a break like phrases: loud speaker, etc.
So the criterion of English spelling is not very much reliable. Some units have two or three graphical variants, cf. headmaster - head-master - head master; Thank you - thank-you - thankyou. Only compounds of the first group (classical compounds) are characterised by graphical inseparability. The analysis of structural, phonetical and graphical inseparability brings us to the conclusion that the most reliable criterion of distinguishing between compound words and word-groups is the criterion of structural inseparability.
The problem of distinguishing between compound words and word-groups is still more complicated due to the productivity of the patterns N + N and V + postposition.
In modern English many new units are built after the pattern N + N; they are spelt differently: moon walk «выход на поверхность луны», spacewoman, catwalk «подиум для моделей», King size, etc. The question arises whether units of the type silk dress, geography teacher are words or phrases. Similar questions boil down to the so-called «stone wall» problem. Linguists came to the conclusion that the borderline between nominal compounds and nominal phrases is not distinct. Diachronically nominal phrases develop unity of meaning and change into compound words. Many compound words came into use as phrases, e.g. God be with you > good-bye.
Units built after the pattern V + postposition (give up, give in, lie back «отклониться в кресле», fall off «сваливаться» [например, о ботинке], act out [the dialogue], try out «испытать» [a new method on smb.], etc.) also present a certain difficulty as they display semantic unity like compound words but possess features of a word-group. To answer the question whether units of this type are compounds or phrases we must see if they are characterised by inseparability. The analysis shows that
1) they are not characterised by graphical inseparability because they are spelt as two words;
2) they are not characterised by phonetical inseparability because each of the two components is stressed: 'put 'on, 'come 'in;
3) they are not characterised by structural inseparability because
- two components can be separated, cf. think over the problem, but think it over; Take off the coat, but Take it off;
grammatical inflexion also separates the two components, cf. He gives up…, He looked up…, but: He whitewashed…
The consequent conclusion is that units of give in, put on type are not compound words but phrases.
compounds built by means of the juxtaposition of stems.
Juxtaposition of stems is joining two or more stems without any linking element. There are four kinds of juxtaposition of stems in a compound word:
- juxtaposition of non-derived stems (snow-white, heartburn «изжога»);
- juxtaposition of a non-derived and a derived stems (head-teacher);
- juxtaposition of a non-derived and an abbreviated stems (A-level, H-bomb, H-bag (hand bag), A-bomb, TV-show);
- juxtaposition of phonetically similar stems forming reduplicative compounds (bye-bye, ping-pong, tip-top «первоклассный», wishy-washy «жидкий», sing-song «монета», сriss-cross «перекресток»). Juxtaposition of phonetically similar stems or words is often found in Russian too, e.g. «тип-топ», «дурак-дураком», «нос к носу»;
compound derivatives (a.k.a. «derivational compounds») formed by adding a word-building suffix to a compound stem: blue-eyed, light-minded, reform-minded, dog-eared. Compound stem is the stem consisting in its turn of two stems (cf. a simple root stem in worker). These derivational compounds are built after the pattern: Compound stem + - ed, e.g. blue-eye + ed. They are derivational compounds, but not compound words because eyed, minded, eared do not exist as words. Russian words «длинноногий», «голубоглазый» are also derivational compounds but not compound words because «ногий», «глазый» do not exist. On the other hand words of the shoe-maker type are compound words built after the pattern: a non-derived stem + a derived stem.
Many derivational compounds are built in English after the pattern compound stem + - er, e.g. sit-downer (a person taking part in a sit-down demonstration), baby-sitter, hard-liner, do-gooder. There are other suffixes forming derivational compounds, e.g. horsemanship «верховая езда»;
compounds built by means of the linking elements: - o-, - i-, - s - (gasometer, Indo-China, Anglo-Russian; handicraft; sportsman, salesman, saleswoman, statesman);
compounds which are termed «lexicalized phrases»; they consist of more than two stems (up-to-date, out-of-door, man-of-war «военный корабль», good-for-nothing [the elements - to-, - of-, - for - are not independent words, they are stems], forget-me-not).
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