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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Address correspondence to: Linda J. Porrino, Ph. Movement disturbances are often overlooked consequences of chronic cocaine abuse. The purpose of this study was to systematically investigate sensorimotor performance in chronic cocaine users and characterize changes in brain activity among movement-related regions of interest ROIs in these users. Functional magnetic resonance imaging data were collected from fourteen chronic cocaine users and fifteen age and gender matched controls. All participants performed a sequential finger-tapping task with their dominant, right hand interleaved with blocks of rest. For each participant, percent signal change from rest was calculated for seven movement related ROIs in both the left and right hemisphere. Cocaine users had significantly longer reaction times and higher error rates than controls. Whereas the controls used a left-sided network of motor-related brain areas to perform the task, cocaine users activated a less lateralized pattern of brain activity. Users had significantly more activity in the ipsilateral right motor and premotor cortical areas, anterior cingulate cortex and the putamen than controls. These data demonstrate that, in addition to the cognitive and affective consequences of chronic cocaine abuse, there are also pronounced alterations in sensorimotor control in these individuals, which are associated with functional alterations throughout movement-related neural networks. Keywords: motor control, substance abuse, neuroimaging, laterality, neural networks. Disruptions of cognitive and affective processing associated with chronic cocaine exposure have been widely characterized in both human addicts and animal models. Behavioral consequences of cocaine use have been primarily attributed to alterations in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system innervating ventral striatum and medial and orbitalfrontal cortex. Recent evidence, however, suggests that chronic cocaine use may lead to lasting effects in the nigrostriatal dopamine system as well, particularly the dorsal striatum Letchworth et al. Despite the known involvement of the nigrostriatal dopamine system in motor control Cenci, ; Goldstein et al. There have been a number of clinical case studies that have reported extrapyramidal symptoms, including tics, dystonia, and dyskinesias in patients with a history of chronic stimulant abuse including amphetamine and cocaine Bartzokis et al. While many of the cocaine users in these studies also abused other drugs such as alcohol, Bauer et al found a greater incidence of tremor in cocaine-dependent patients than alcohol-dependent or polydrug abusers. Furthermore, the severity or the tremor was positively correlated with the number of self-reported uses of cocaine and negatively correlated with duration of abstinence Bauer, a. This persistence of the movement deficits suggests that prolonged cocaine exposure may have lasting effects on sensorimotor control systems. Given, the limited sample and retrospective nature of most of these studies, however, there is little consensus regarding the nature and severity of motor sequelae that occur in chronic cocaine users. While sensorimotor control is modulated by dopamine in the nigrostriatal pathway, successful motor control relies on a distributed network of cortical and subcortical structures Graybiel, , Visuomotor integration tasks are highly lateralized and rely on activity in the contralateral primary motor cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the supplementary motor area of the premotor cortex Brodman Area 6 , the anterior cingulate cortex, the caudate, thalamus, and the ipsilateral cerebellum Foulkes and Miall, ; Inoue et al. These regions work together in temporally coordinated patterns to orchestrate smooth, purposeful movements Pollok et al. Functional activity in many of these same regions is also dysregulated in chronic cocaine users Volkow et al. Active cocaine users have higher glucose metabolism in the basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex than matched controls Volkow et al Furthermore, impaired response inhibition by cocaine users is associated with lower activity in the right supplementary motor area, and anterior cingulate cortex Hester and Garavan, This study also noted elevated activity in the cerebellum, which may indicate functional compensation- a pattern that has also been observed in alcoholics Desmond et al. Given that the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, anterior cingulate, caudate nucleus, putamen and cerebellum all contribute to ongoing motor control Pollok et al. We aimed to test the hypotheses that a simple finger-sequencing task would highlight significant 1 behavioral and 2 neurofunctional impairments in movement related regions of interest in chronic, actively-using cocaine users relative to non-drug using controls. We further hypothesized that cocaine users would have disrupted functional lateralization during unimanual sequencing similar to that exhibited in other clinical populations. To achieve this, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI to assess blood oxygen level dependent BOLD activity throughout movement-related neural regions of interest as cocaine users and controls performed a basic finger-sequencing task. Fifteen cocaine users and 14 control participants were recruited via local advertisements and word of mouth. Cocaine users were currently using cocaine on a weekly basis, not actively enrolled in a treatment program, and did not participate with the intent to be treated for cocaine dependence. All participants provided written informed consent to participate according to the procedures approved by the Wake Forest University School of Medicine Institutional Review Board. Participants were initially screened by telephone for eligibility. The data from the medical and psychiatric evaluations were used to establish eligibility for participation. All cocaine users met DSM-IV criteria for cocaine dependence and had used cocaine at least three times per week for a minimum of five years. At the time of the study all participants had positive urine drug screens for cocaine. Exclusionary criteria included a history of Axis-I psychiatric disorders, dependence on substances other than nicotine and cocaine in the user group , head trauma, neurological disorders, systemic diseases that might affect the central nervous system, an intelligence quotient of less than 70, pharmaceutical treatment for any neuropsychiatric diagnosis for more than six months, and any psychotropic prescription medication use six months prior to testing. Control participants did not have a history of substance dependence other than nicotine and were chosen to match the cocaine user population on the basis of gender, race, right handedness as determined through the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory and education Table 1. On the scanning day, all participants arrived at the imaging center in the morning, approximately three hours prior to acquisition of their functional MRI scan. Urine samples were collected from all participants to test for pregnancy and drug use. Cocaine or its metabolites were found in all participants in the cocaine user group, indicating that they had used cocaine within the previous 72 hours. No user displayed any overt behavioral signs of cocaine intoxication or craving. Prior to task training, participants were given the opportunity for a smoke break to prevent the confounds of nicotine withdrawal. We used a modified activation paradigm based on one that has been used previously to study patients with movement disorders Sabatini et al. For this basic visuo-motor integration task participants were required to watch a movie of right hand finger tapping movements on a monitor and mimic the ongoing actions with their own fingers. Their responses to the ongoing visual cues were recorded with an MR compatible response box placed under their right hand. Based on extensive pilot testing, designed to minimize errors of omission in cocaine users while maintaining attention in healthy controls, a 1 Hz tapping frequency one finger movement per second was used for this task. All participants were initially familiarized with the visuo-motor finger-sequencing task outside of the scanning environment. A maximum of three, one minute practice blocks were presented. After this accuracy rate was achieved, all participants performed another one minute practice block to minimize differences in time spent at maximal performance between the groups. During the practice session, all fourteen control participants reached criterion performance during the first minute block. Seven of the fifteen cocaine users reached criterion in the first minute block, whereas five required two practice blocks, and three users required three blocks. In the functional MRI scanner all participants were instructed to mimic movies of unpredictable finger-tapping sequences with their dominant right hand A. These 30s task blocks were interleaved with 30s rest blocks and 9s motor preparation periods for each functional run B. All participants performed two functional runs of the task. In the MRI scanner the participants were able to see the movie of sequential finger-tapping movements via MR compatible goggles. Corrective lenses were inserted into the goggles if necessary. A brief test of visual acuity was performed via the response box to ensure that the participants could see the screen and were able to hit the appropriate keys on the response box. Each participant performed two runs of the task in the scanner. During the task participants were required to mimic the ongoing finger-tapping sequences with their dominant, right hand in 30s blocks interspersed with 30s rest periods. Following each rest block there was also a nine second preparation block in which the participant received a preparation cue which counted down the number of seconds remaining before the motor task began again. This preparation block was modeled separately in the statistical analysis and was used to eliminate the effects of attentional set-shifting to the visuo-motor performance data acquired in the task block. Images were acquired on a 1. The head was positioned along the canthomeatal line. Foam padding was used to limit head motion. The first two radio frequency excitations were performed prior to image acquisition to achieve steady-state transverse relaxation. The scanning planes were oriented parallel to the anterior commissure—posterior commissure line and extended from the superior extent of motor cortex to the base of the cerebellum. The first six of the volumes of data were aquired before the task began to allow time for the signal to reach an equilibrium state before any stimulation onset. The data were corrected for acquisition time slice timing , realigned to the first volume motion correction , normalized into a standardized neuroanatomical space Montreal Neurological Institute MNI brain template , and smoothed using a Gaussian kernel of 8 mm for the group analysis to reduce the variance due to anatomical variability. Analyses of time data series were performed individually using a boxcar model convolved with the canonical hemodynamic response function. Statistical contrast maps were made for each individual comparing brain activity associated with performing the task to that during periods of rest. These data were modeled across all participants in order to obtain a voxel-based representation of brain areas being used to perform the task for each group. A region of interest analysis approach was used to probe alterations in the amplitude of activity within a network of regions known to be modulated by finger-sequencing tasks. Errors were divided into two categories: commission errors pressing the button for the wrong finger and omission errors not pressing a button in the allotted period of time. Two primary measures of functional activity were calculated for each region of interest in this study: percent signal change from rest and a laterality index. The magnitude of motor related activity was measured by calculating the percent signal change from rest for each ROI. Percent signal change from rest was calculated for each individual by comparing the BOLD signal during movement blocks to rest blocks. A positive LI indicates lateralization to the left hemisphere, whereas a negative LI indicates right hemisphere lateralization. The mean total years of cocaine use was All participants reported smoking as their primary route of administration. Although no participants met dependence criteria for any illegal drugs other than cocaine, all participants reported some lifetime use of other illegal substances including marijuana 15 of 15 , methamphetamine 2 of 15 , LSD 4 of 15 , heroin 2 of 15 and ecstasy 2 of All control participants had no history of use of illegal substances other than marijuana, four of 14 participants with less than 50 total lifetime uses more than two years previously. Four were current tobacco smokers and all reported alcohol use in the past month. The extent to which these variables contributed to the effects of interest were determined through post-hoc analyses of covariance as described below. Multiple analyses of variance with reaction time and error rates modeled as dependent variables, revealed a significant overall difference in motor performance between the groups. Response latency the time between seeing the finger movement and performing an action was significantly longer in active cocaine users The within-group variance was small and the range of values among cocaine users Relative to controls, active cocaine users made significantly more errors of commission 9. There no significant difference in response latency or the number of errors made in the first task block compared to the last task block. Mean with standard error reaction time a and number of errors b on the finger-sequencing task for cocaine users solid and matched control participants lined. Voxel-based analyses revealed that controls had significant clusters of activity in movement-related brain regions throughout the left hemisphere during periods of finger-sequencing relative to the rest Figure 3. A region of interest analysis was employed to further characterize these data. Voxel-based maps of significant brain activity for controls A and chronic cocaine users B. To extend the data analysis beyond motor-related regions of interest, contrast maps were made for each individual comparing brain activity associated with performing the task to periods of rest. These data were modeled across all subjects in order to get a voxel-based representation of brain areas being used to perform the task for each group. A three-way analysis of variance with repeated measures signal magnitude: rest vs. Consistent with the voxel-based analysis, finger- tapping elicited activation in a largely contralateral network of cortico-striatal-thalamic brain regions. Percent signal change in the contralateral hemisphere black and the ipsilateral hemisphere gray of controls a and cocaine users b. Like controls, cocaine users activated cortico-striatal-thalamic regions for this task. In contrast to controls, however, there was largely bilateral activation across this network in cocaine users. To further address the issue of laterality, a laterality index LI of each ROI for cocaine users and controls was calculated in accordance with previous methods Cramer et al. As anticipated based on the voxel-based data, controls had significantly higher BOLD signal in the left primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, anterior cingulate cortex, putamen, and thalamus relative to the right hemisphere. In contrast, the caudate and the cerebellum are lateralized toward the right hemisphere Figure 5. In users however, LIs were generally lower than those of controls. The laterality index LI for each region of interest is plotted for both controls lined and cocaine users solid. A positive LI means that activity is lateralized to the left hemisphere, while a negative LI indicates right sided laterality. The current study demonstrates that cocaine users have significant sensorimotor impairments accompanied by abnormal functional brain activity in cortical and subcortical areas that subserve motor control. Specifically, cocaine users have a less lateralized pattern of brain activity in motor-related brain regions than matched controls during a simple movement task. These data extend findings from prior reports which have documented motor abnormalities in stimulant users Lundh and Tunving, ; Pascual-Leone and Dhuna, ; Rylander, Furthermore, similar loss of functional laterality in cortical motor areas has been observed in several other neurologic diseases, thus suggesting that cocaine use is associated with functional dysregulation throughout movement-related neural networks. The slower reaction times and higher error rates among cocaine users observed in this study are consistent with several previous clinical case studies of chronic users. Bauer et al a documented a resting hand tremor in cocaine-dependent patients that remained intact after three months of abstinence Bauer, b. Similar to the current study, Bauer found that cocaine-dependent individuals exhibited slower reaction times than controls during several sustained- and divided-attention tasks. Multiple studies of cognitive functioning in cocaine users have assessed reaction time as a secondary outcome measure. While several of these studies demonstrate slower reaction times in cocaine users Bolla et al. This discrepancy may be due to an interaction between cognitive demands of a task and sensorimotor performance Schall and Thompson, In contrast to prior studies, however, the current investigation was explicitly designed to investigate motor performance as a primary outcome using a task with minimal cognitive load. The robust differences between the populations on these basic motor metrics underscore the importance of considering sensorimotor processing deficits when interpreting performance data from other cognitive studies in cocaine users. Sensorimotor impairments among chronic cocaine users were associated with loss of functional laterality within the sensorimotor regions. Healthy controls recruit a largely left-sided network of cortical and subcortical regions to perform a sequential finger tapping task with their right hand Boecker et al. In the current study, controls activate significantly greater contralateral left than the ipsilateral motor cortex Cramer et al. Activecocaine users, however, exhibited a far less lateralized pattern of activity within motor cortical regions. This observation is further supported by the laterality analysis which revealed that cocaine users lack the typical left-sided laterality positive laterality index in cortical motor areas that was present in controls. The loss of functional laterality during performance of a motor task is observed in several other neurologic conditions, including multiple sclerosis, ischemic stroke and advanced aging. Multiple sclerosis is a chronic condition associated with diffuse, widespread neurologic damage, and progressive motor impairment. During the active phase of the disease, the motor disability is proportional to activity in the ipsilateral premotor and primary motor cortex Lee et al. Motor disability in multiple sclerosis is associated with a progressive loss of motor network laterality. The loss of laterality in these patients may reflect loss of typical inhibitory tone in the ipsilateral motor cortex or degradation of callosal white matter Reddy et al. Though this functional and structural link has not been directly tested in cocaine users, prior reports have documented decreased white matter density integrity along the corpus callosum of cocaine users Moeller et al. Although a loss of laterality can correlate with disease severity, as in multiple sclerosis, it may also indicate compensatory neural adaptation to injury. Adaptive reorganization is observed, for example, during recovery from an ischemic stroke Cramer, ; Marshall et al. Right middle cerebral artery stroke is typically associated with damage to the right primary motor cortex and ensuing paralysis of the left hand. In the months following the ischemic stroke, recovery of the affected hand correlates with activity in both the ipsilateral and contralateral motor cortex Cramer, A longitudinal study by Kim et al , however, demonstrated that 6 months after a stroke, patients regained the typical cortical laterality during unilateral movement Kim et al. Loss of laterality, therefore, is adaptive in the initial stages of stroke recovery, but long-term recovery is associated with a rebalancing of activity to the contralateral side. As the present group of cocaine users in the current study had been using cocaine for at least 10 years with no reported change in their drug taking behavior in the last 7 years, it is unlikely that the loss of laterality seen here reflects short-term adaptive plasticity as is seen in stroke patients. It is possible, however, that the loss of laterality in cocaine users represents a long-term adaptive process, as in advanced aging. Several studies have demonstrated that otherwise healthy older adults rely on both their contralateral and ipsilateral primary motor cortex to perform a finger-sequencing task Hutchinson et al. Naccarato et al. They conclude that in aging, increased activity in both the ipsilateral and contralateral motor cortex, is a compensatory strategy to maintain behavioral performance. Although the cocaine users in the current study do not perform as well as healthy aging populations, the elevated activity in the left and right corticies in the cocaine users may represent adaptation to the decreased cortical tissue density observed in chronic cocaine users Franklin et al. Though alcohol use was not significantly greater in the cocaine users than controls, it is useful to note that compensatory increases in cortical and cerebellar activity have also been observed in heavy alcohol users Desmond et al. The results of the current investigation largely support and extend prior studies, but there are a few limitations which must be considered when interpreting the results. As with many human drug abuse investigations, it is difficult to isolate a socially and demographically matched control group that does not have a history of drug abuse. While the participants were matched for age, handedness, and education, the cocaine users were more likely to be smokers and had higher scores on a depression inventory, and lower IQ than controls. To address the impact of these variables, as well as current drug use status on motor performance and BOLD signal change, post-hoc analyses of covariance were performed. These analyses did not reveal any significant relationships among the covariates, task performance, or brain activation. To avoid any deleterious effects of nicotine withdrawal on motor performance, all participants were given the opportunity to smoke upon request up to an hour prior to image acquisition Wang et al. Although there is some evidence that IQ affects motor performance Sen et al. The elevated depressive symptoms in cocaine addicts, relative to controls, cannot be ruled out as a contributing factor to their sensorimotor performance impairments Goodwin, Individuals with major depressive disorder often display psychomotor slowing and an inability to perform sustained attention tasks Pardo et al. These cognitive deficits in patient with depression are accompanied by decreases in frontal cortical BOLD signal Wang et al. Given that the cocaine users have a significant increase in the spatial extent of activity in both the left and right hemispheres during motor task performance, the depressive symptoms alone are unlikely to be the source of the neurofunctional alterations seen in these users. Finally, all cocaine users in the current study had positive urine screens for cocaine at the time of scanning. However, there was no evidence of intoxication present in any of the participants. Furthermore, recent work by Goldstein and colleagues Woicik et. Signs of withdrawal were not observed at any time during the study, although the potential interaction between craving and task performance cannot be completely ruled out Garavan and Hester Testing of an additional group of participants is necessary to fully evaluate the role of current cocaine use and craving on these tasks. In summary, this investigation confirms prior reports of sensorimotor processing deficits in cocaine users and demonstrates that these deficits are associated with dysfunctional activity throughout motor-related neural networks. Specifically, cocaine users have less lateralized activity in cortical motor areas relative to controls. This may either be compensatory, as in stroke recovery, or indicate a loss of cortical inhibition, as in multiple sclerosis patients. The incorporation of sensorimotor deficits to the complement of executive and affective impairments in cocaine users further supports the idea that cocaine abuse and dependence may be a whole brain disease, and is not limited to striatal dysfunction. Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Psychiatry Res. Published in final edited form as: Psychiatry Res. Find articles by Colleen A Hanlon. Find articles by Michael J Wesley. Find articles by Alicia J Roth. Find articles by Mack D Miller. Find articles by Linda J Porrino. PMC Copyright notice. The publisher's version of this article is available at Psychiatry Res. Controls Users Age Open in a new tab. Spatial extent and magnitude of BOLD signal change in sensorimotor regions of interest. Controls Users voxels maximum voxels maximum Left Motor Cortex 9. The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. Similar articles. Add to Collections. 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Seattle’s Potential Solution for Heroin Epidemic: Places for Legal Drug Use

Constantine where can I buy cocaine

Charles H. Turner, U. Casey, Asst. In the matter before the court, plaintiff, United States of America the government , moves the court for summary judgment 22 in its favor forfeiting real property known as S. Claimant Joseph Apodaca opposes the motion for summary judgment on the grounds that there are genuine issues of material fact relevant to the determination of whether the defendant property was used to facilitate the commission of a crime as alleged. On May 11, , Special Agent Peter Constantine of the Drug Enforcement Administration DEA received information from a confidential reliable informant that Connie Caywood and Nicki Villebrun, who resided together in an apartment complex, were capable of obtaining ounce quantities of cocaine. The informant reported to Constantine that Caywood obtained the cocaine from Villebrun, who obtained it from an individual known as 'Joe. On May 12, , the informant, under the direction of Constantine, met with Caywood for the purpose of purchasing one ounce of cocaine with monies provided by the government. Special agents of the DEA, assisted by other law enforcement personnel, established surveillance of Caywood after she left the meeting with the informant. Caywood met with a woman later identified as Villebrun. Both women traveled by car to a restaurant in the block of Woodstock Avenue, where Caywood exited the car. Villebrun then proceeded to the defendant residence in what appeared to the DEA agents to be a circuitious manner. She parked the car in front of the defendant residence. Villebrun was observed exiting the defendant residence and followed as she returned to the restaurant on Woodstock where she met Caywood. Both women then returned to Villebrun's vehicle and to the area of the original meeting with the informant. Villebrun then left the area. Caywood met with the informant and returned the government funds to the informant along with a substance later found to be 0. On the night of May 12, , the informant again provided Caywood with government funds to purchase one ounce of cocaine. Under surveillance, the DEA observed Caywood meet with Villebrun and travel with her to the defendant residence. Villebrun attempted unsuccessfully to enter the defendant residence. Both women then entered the residence. Approximately one-half hour later, the women departed, went back to their apartment for fifteen minutes, and then drove to meet the informant. Caywood then returned one-half of the government funds to the informant along with Caywood explained that the two ounce shipment had not yet arrived. A check with Portland General Electric Company showed that the defendant residence received electric service subscribed in the name of Joseph Apodaca. On June 2, , the informant and an undercover DEA agent met with Caywood for the purpose of purchasing one ounce of cocaine. Caywood then walked to the defendant residence where she met with a white male later identified as Apodaca in front of the house. After several moments, both Caywood and Apodaca entered the defendant residence where they remained for one hour and twenty minutes. After Caywood and Apodaca exited the defendant residence, Apodaca drove Caywood out of the area where she took a taxi to meet the informant and the undercover DEA agent. Caywood gave them Caywood was then told the identity of the undercover agents and was introduced to another DEA agent. Caywood signed a statement admitting her involvement in the most recent transaction and identifying Apodaca as the source of her drug supply. Caywood stated that Apodaca had been expecting her because she had called ahead; that once inside Apodaca's residence, she and Apodaca went to the second floor; and that Apodaca went back downstairs and returned with the cocaine that she later gave to the informant and undercover agent. On January 13, , an indictment was returned by the grand jury against Apodaca charging him with two counts of distributing cocaine on May 12, and June 2, After entering a plea of not guilty, Apodaca pled guilty to the second count alleging distribution of cocaine on June 2, The government contends that the defendant property is subject to forfeiture because it was used to facilitate the distribution of cocaine in violation of 21 U. The government relies upon section a 7 , which provides that:. Apodaca argues that any evidence presented that does not relate solely to the allegation of distribution of cocaine on June 2, cannot be considered by the court. He states that Villebrun is his girlfriend; that he did not provide the 'free sample' or any other cocaine on May 12, ; that at some point prior to June 2, , he became aware that Caywood wished him to obtain a quantity of cocaine for her; that he told Villebrun that Caywood could not come to his home for any purpose other than social; that he obtained the cocaine for Caywood and intended to deliver it to her residence; that before he could deliver it to her residence, he was approached by Caywood; and that after spending some time socializing, he drove Caywood to Mike's Auto Parts where he gave her the cocaine which had been in his car. Apodaca states that the one ounce of cocaine delivered to Caywood was all that he possessed and was the largest quantity that he had ever possessed; that the cocaine had never been inside of his house; that a police search of his home found no illegal drugs; that he never brought illegal drugs into his home; and that a number of statements made by Caywood to the informant and undercover agent were exaggerations and fabrications made up to impress possible buyers. Apodaca's affidavit concludes:. Apodaca argues that there is a genuine issue of material fact created by his affidavit as to whether the cocaine was delivered to Caywood in the defendant property. Apodaca further argues that even if the court accepts the fact that he was in the house when he delivered the cocaine to Caywood, this does not indicate that the house was used to facilitate the delivery of cocaine. Apodaca argues that the government must show that the defendant property played a substantial role in the criminal act and that mere presence is not enough. In order to prevail on its motion for summary judgment, the government must prove that there is probable cause to believe that the defendant property was used or intended to be used to facilitate the distribution of cocaine. United States v. The government relies upon the facts stated above as well as the conviction of Apodaca for the distribution of cocaine on June 2, Apodaca relies upon the case of United States v. Certain Lots in Virginia Beach, Va. In Certain Lots in Virginia Beach, the court noted the current split in the circuits as to the proper interpretation of the 'facilitation' concept:. The government is only required to prove by less than prima facie proof but more than a mere suspicion that Apodaca delivered cocaine to Caywood in the defendant property. Caywood's statement that Apodaca went downstairs and then returned with the cocaine, along with the substantial circumstantial evidence that Caywood and Villebrun went to his residence for the purpose of purchasing cocaine and thereafter delivered cocaine, and the police reports that show that Caywood went to the defendant property, stayed there for over an hour, and thereafter delivered cocaine, is more than adequate proof to meet the government's burden to establish the presence of probable cause. Once this initial showing has been made, the burden shifts to the claimant to demonstrate by a preponderance of the evidence that the property is not subject to forfeiture or that a defense to forfeiture is applicable. See United States v. Premises Known as nd St. The claimant's statement that the delivery of the cocaine took place at Mike's Auto Parts and not at his residence is not adequate to carry that burden and to avoid forfeiture. Forfeiture laws are intended to be harsh on those distributing drugs. The government's motion for summary judgment 22 is granted. The government shall prepare the appropriate judgment. Some case metadata and case summaries were written with the help of AI, which can produce inaccuracies. You should read the full case before relying on it for legal research purposes. One Parcel of Real Property, F. United States District Court, D. May 16, Lon N. Bryant, Wilsonville, Or. The government relies upon section a 7 , which provides that: The following shall be subject to forfeiture to the United States and no property right shall exist in them:. Apodaca's affidavit concludes: The allegations and insinuations that my home was in any way connected with illegal activity are false, incorrect and misleading. The fact that I, my girlfriend and other acquaintances of mine were seen at my home should not be grounds for taking my property from me. I have received substantial punishment as a result of my criminal activity and my plea of guilty thereto. Affidavit of Joseph Apodaca, p. However, courts have interpreted a similar provision of the civil forfeiture statute. One Chevrolet Corvette, F. See also United States v. One Porsche Coupe, F. Other circuits have explicitly rejected any requirement of a substantial connection, holding instead that use of property 'in any manner' in connection with an illegal drug transaction is sufficient to justify forfeiture. One Cadillac Eldorado Sedan, F. The Ninth Circuit has not addressed this issue. Enter Your Email. Justia Legal Resources. Find a Lawyer. Law Schools. US Federal Law. US State Law. Other Databases. Marketing Solutions.

Constantine where can I buy cocaine