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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Relationships between behavioral addictions BAs and substance addictions are under-explored. Non-medical prescription drug use and distinct BAs are common among young adults. Preventive interventions are essential for young adults with co-occurring addictions. Keywords: Non-medical prescription drug use, Sedatives, Hypnotics, Behavioral addictions, Young adults. However, the relationship between these behaviors has received scarce attention among young adult samples. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the association between NMUSH and symptoms of distinct BAs among young adults. Analyses were conducted based on the data of two large sample studies including a representative sample carried out with young adult samples. The following BAs were assessed: problematic internet use, problematic video gaming, problematic social media use, problem gambling, exercise addiction, eating disorders, compulsive buying behavior, problematic mobile phone use, work addiction, and hair pulling. The symptoms of problematic mobile phone use were the most severe in the non-user group. These findings draw attention to the need for preventive interventions for this high-risk population. Sedatives and hypnotics especially benzodiazepines are among the most commonly prescribed psychiatric drugs with a wide range of clinical uses that include the treatment of anxiety, insomnia, epilepsy, and alcohol withdrawal European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, , Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, This group of medicines is also among most commonly prescribed drugs which are used non-medically. Therefore, the non-medical use of sedatives and hypnotics NMUSH has received increasing focus in recent years in the scientific literature. However, its risk factors and correlates are still unexplored due to the multifactorial nature of this phenomenon. For instance, different occurrences and correlates of non-medical prescription drug use have been reported across age cohorts and distinct populations. Several studies suggest that elderly people, women or high-risk opioid users are at the greatest risk of NMUSH Votaw et al. Nonetheless, nationally representative data from the U. These results concur with a study carried out among representative adult samples in five European countries France, Germany, Italy, Spain, UK which reported a greater proportion of adults aged 34 or younger among lifetime non-medical sedative and hypnotic users Hockenhull et al. Previous research has reported a wide array of sociodemographic variables which may contribute to NMUSH among young adult populations e. As reported by Schepis et al. Recent research has also suggested a relationship between NMUSH and major depression, anxiety, treatment history, psychological distress, and suicidal ideation Grant et al. Furthermore, personality traits such as anxiety sensitivity, impulsivity, and compulsivity as well as the low self-esteem are considered to be predictors for NMUSH among college students Chinneck et al. The co-occurrence between NMUSH and other substance-related addictive behaviors in this high-risk population has been also investigated. A study by McCabe et al. These results support those of Grant et al. Nevertheless, as reported by Busto Miramontes et al. Moreover, Griffiths has argued that all genuine behavioral and substance addictions can be defined by six common characteristics i. Addictive behaviors related to the behavior itself i. Young adulthood is also considered to be a critical period in terms of the development of different types of behavioral addictions BAs e. Moreover, Ganson et al. Therefore, much fewer data are available related to these phenomena and their risk factors or comorbidities. However, as addictive behaviors are common among young adults, they can be considered as a high-risk population in terms of addictions. Understanding more comprehensively the relationship between BAs and NMUSH would likely improve the effectiveness of preventive interventions for this age group. Analyses were conducted based on the data of two large sample studies carried out on Hungarian populations aged between 18 and 34 years, defined as young adults by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction One of the samples was age representative. The Budapest Longitudinal Study BLS is a representative young adult sample study of Budapest youth aged between 18 and 34 years assessing the prevalence and characteristics of substance use and BAs. In the present study, data from the first data collection wave in was used. The size of the final weighted sample by layer categories was participants A mixed method approach comprising both face-to-face and self-administered questionnaires were used during the data collection. The aim of the Psychological and Genetic Factors of Addictive Behaviors PGA Study was to take a multidisciplinary approach and test possible psychological and genetic factors in different types of substance use and BAs. The study was carried out among a large sample of young adult population from several Hungarian education facilities. The total sample comprised participants A detailed introduction to the procedure and substance use assessment have been published elsewhere Kotyuk et al. Therefore, the following behaviors were examined:. The Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire PIUQ is a self-report screening instrument containing three subscales: obsession, neglect and control disorder Demetrovics et al. The POGQ assesses problematic online gaming and comprises six factors: preoccupation, overuse, immersion, social isolation, interpersonal conflicts, and withdrawal. The BSMAS is a 6-item instrument for assessing the risk of problematic nature of social media use over the past 12 months. The DSM-IV-J is based on the adult diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling adapted to assess past year gambling among adolescents. The EAI is a 6-item psychometric instrument developed to identify individuals affected by, or at risk of exercise addiction. The RCBS comprises six items, loading on two factors obsessive—compulsive buying and impulsive buying. Compulsive buying behavior was not assessed in the PGA. Problematic mobile phone use was not assessed in the PGA. The BWAS is a 7-item instrument developed to assess the risk of work addiction. Work addiction was not assessed in the PGA. The 7-item MGH-HPS assesses urges to pull, actual pulling, perceived control, and associated distress over the past 7 days. Problematic hair pulling was not assessed in the BLS. Four behavioral addictions were examined in only one of the included studies i. Therefore, analyses were conducted separately. Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests were conducted to explore the severity of BA symptoms in the three groups. In the BLS, In the PGA Study, Table 1 shows the medians and mean ranks of scales assessing the severity of BA symptoms in the three groups. For means, standard deviations, skewness, and kurtosis for each psychometric scale, see the Supplementary Material. Although the Kruskal-Wallis test showed significant difference in the severity of exercise addiction symptoms in the three groups in the PGA sample, the Mann-Whitney test after the Bonferroni correction showed no significant differences between groups. However, it should be noted that a similar pattern is shown in the two samples i. Therefore, non-significant post hoc tests in the PGA sample may also be caused by using a conservative statistical test. No significant differences were found between groups in regard of the severity of problematic internet use in PGA sample, the severity of problematic video gaming symptoms in both samples, and the severity of hair pulling in the PGA sample. Several correlates of non-medical prescription drug use among young adults have been reported in the scientific literature Busto Miramontes et al. Sedatives and hypnotics are typically used for the short-term treatment of anxiety or insomnia World Health Organization, , therefore, self-medication anxiety, sleep disorders or coping with negative affect are the most common motives for NMUSH Boyd et al. Previous studies have suggested a co-occurrence of problematic internet use, problematic social media use, problem gambling, work addiction, exercise addiction or compulsive buying and with symptoms of anxiety or depression Andreassen et al. In regard to work addiction, Dutheil et al. Sohn et al. The commonness of this behavior among young adults can overwrite the differences alongside NMUSH as also seen in the results of the present study. Moreover, psychological constructs such as anxiety, depression or sleep disturbances show associations with the behavioral addictions examined in the present study, and these constructs may therefore play mediating roles between NMUSH and BAs. Fan et al. However, it should be noted that causality between these behaviors has yet to be established. BAs may function as an escape mechanism for negative affect Wegmann et al. The further investigation of the mediating effects between NMUSH and BAs could help to better understand the relationship between these phenomena among young adults, especially because early onset of non-medical prescription drug use is associated with the development of lifetime prescription drug dependence McCabe et al. Therefore, adequate preventive interventions are essential in this high-risk population. Some limitations of the present study should be noted. As mentioned above, the analysis of cross-sectional data does not allow the determining of causal pathways between NMUSH and the examined BAs. In addition, more detailed and higher levels of statistical analyses examining mediating and moderating factors are needed to provide a more accurate picture of the nature of these relationships. It should be noted that some of the examined behaviors were included to analyses because they can be described by the characteristics of addictions. However, the fact that some of these behaviors are more accurately viewed as obsessive—compulsive disorders e. Furthermore, self-administered questionnaires were used during the data collection, therefore, memory and social desirability bias should be also taken into account as well as several differences between two examined samples e. Mean age was also lower among individuals in the PGA sample. Therefore, the difference in results may be because internet use becomes problematic in later ages of young adulthood. Considering these differences, representative studies are needed among young adults to confirm the findings of the present study. However, examination of further types of non-medical prescription drug use such as opioid pain relievers or stimulants would also be useful to examine in the future to better understand the relationship between non-medical prescription drug use and BAs. Early recognition of both BAs and NMUSH among young adults may be vital in the prevention of addictions, especially because of the co-occurrence of these behaviors. In addition, due to the similarities between substance-related and behavioral addictions, a general predisposition for addictions should be taken into account, which may simultaneously manifest in non-medical prescription drug use, BAs or other types of substance use. However, further studies are needed to understand the relationship between addictive behaviors including NMUSH in this high-risk population. This manuscript contains original material and no other publication has been written from the current dataset. The paper has not been submitted to any other journal, and has not been published elsewhere. The final version and submission of the manuscript has been approved by the authors and the indicated authorship order is also accepted. All authors have contributed to the revision and approved the final version of the manuscript. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. MDG has received research funding from Norsk Tipping the gambling operator owned by the Norwegian government. MDG has received funding for a number of research projects in the area of gambling education for young people, social responsibility in gambling and gambling treatment from Gamble Aware formerly the Responsibility in Gambling Trust , a charitable body which funds its research program based on donations from the gambling industry. MDG undertakes consultancy for various gambling companies in the area of social responsibility in gambling. The University of Gibraltar receives funding from the Gibraltar Gambling Care Foundation, an independent, not-for-profit charity. This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Addict Behav Rep. Find articles by Anna Magi. Find articles by Andrea Eisinger. Find articles by Mark D Griffiths. Find articles by Zsolt Demetrovics. Open in a new tab. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

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