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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Nonphotosynthetic holoparasites exploit flexible targeting of phylloquinone biosynthesis to facilitate plasma membrane redox signaling. Phylloquinone is a lipophilic naphthoquinone found predominantly in chloroplasts and best known for its function in photosystem I electron transport and disulfide bridge formation of photosystem II subunits. Phylloquinone has also been detected in plasma membrane PM preparations of heterotrophic tissues with potential transmembrane redox function, but the molecular basis for this noncanonical pathway is unknown. Here, we provide evidence of PM phylloquinone biosynthesis in a nonphotosynthetic holoparasite Phelipanche aegyptiaca. A nonphotosynthetic and nonplastidial role for phylloquinone is supported by transcription of phylloquinone biosynthetic genes during seed germination and haustorium development, by PM-localization of alternative terminal enzymes, and by detection of phylloquinone in germinated seeds. Comparative gene network analysis with photosynthetically competent parasites revealed a bias of P. Genes encoding the PM phylloquinone pathway are also present in several photoautotrophic taxa of Asterids, suggesting an ancient origin of multifunctionality. Our findings suggest that nonphotosynthetic holoparasites exploit alternative targeting of phylloquinone for transmembrane redox signaling associated with parasitism. Phylloquinone vitamin K1 is a membrane-bound naphthoquinone derivative known to function as an essential electron acceptor in photosystem I PSI; Brettel et al. Phylloquinone also serves as an electron carrier for protein disulfide bond formation crucial for PSII assembly Furt et al. Accordingly, phylloquinone is found predominantly in thylakoids, and most phylloquinone-deficient Arabidopsis Arabidopsis thaliana mutants are seedling-lethal or growth-impaired reviewed in Gilles et al. A sizable phylloquinone pool is stored in plastoglobuli attached to thylakoid membranes Lohmann et al. A small portion of leaf phylloquinone is present as fully reduced quinol, with potential redox function during senescence or dark growth Oostende et al. The eubacterial cognate menaquinone vitamin K2 functions in respiratory electron transport across the cell membrane Nowicka and Kruk, UV-irradiation of cultured carrot Daucus carota cells destroyed phylloquinone, and blocked transmembrane electron transport until restoration by phylloquinone feeding Barr et al. Despite these early reports, however, molecular evidence that directly supports PM-targeting of phylloquinone remains elusive. The corresponding enzyme in A. Intracellular compartmentalization is a hallmark of phylloquinone biosynthesis, with the early steps 1—4, Figure 1A and late pathway steps 8—10 occurring in chloroplasts, and the intermediate steps 5—7 in peroxisomes Babujee et al. Even within the chloroplast, the three terminal steps shuttle between envelope membranes MenA, Schultz et al. Phylloquinone biosynthesis in parasitic plants. A, A simplified phylloquinone biosynthetic pathway from top to bottom as numbered and color-coded by their predicted subcellular localization. B, Expression profiles of phylloquinone genes during parasitic plant development. Gene order is the same as in A , and Y -axis is shown on the right. Developmental stages are as reported Yang et al. Menaquinone MK-4 was included as a reference. We have observed in multiple photosynthetic taxa that phylloquinone-specific genes such as MenA and MenG have measurable expression in heterotrophic tissues where photosynthetic genes are barely detected. To ascertain a noncanonical phylloquinone pathway, we exploited parasitic plants as a photosynthesis-free study system. Among angiosperm parasite families, only the Orobanchaceae contains species that span the full spectrum of photosynthetic capacities, and for which rich transcriptomic resources are available Westwood et al. Of particular interest are obligate holoparasites, such as Phelipanche aegyptiaca , that are devoid of photosynthetic activity and obtain all of their carbon from their hosts. In contrast, obligate e. Striga hermonthica and facultative e. Triphysaria versicolor hemiparasites are partially or fully photosynthetic. Here, we report on the biosynthesis and PM targeting of phylloquinone in the nonphotosynthetic P. Gene network analysis revealed a strong link between phylloquinone and cellular oxidation—reduction processes implicated in parasitic invasion and haustorium development. We propose that parasitic plants exploit alternative phylloquinone targeting for PM redox regulation associated with parasitism. Phylloquinone pathway protein sequences of Mimulus guttatus , a photoautotroph from Phrymaceae sister to Orobanchaceae, were searched against transcript assemblies available from the Parasitic Plant Genome Project Yang et al. Fragmented transcripts may represent nonfunctional relics of genes undergoing degeneration or may reflect technical limitations of de novo assembly that prevented identification of the full complement of phylloquinone biosynthetic genes. We addressed the fragmented assembly challenge by developing a pipeline called parallelized local assembly of sequences PLAS that combines reference-guided mapping against the M. When applied to the RNA-seq datasets of parasitic plants, we successfully recovered full-length transcripts with intact ORFs for all known phylloquinone genes from the holoparasite Supplemental Data Set S1. These transcripts were detected at moderate to high levels during P. However, the apparent lack of PaNDC1 expression weakened support for a functioning phylloquinone pathway. Alternatively, retention and expression of the other seven phylloquinone pathway genes may point to a different pathway configuration at the penultimate step in the holoparasite. We therefore sought to substantiate phylloquinone production in P. HPLC analysis confirmed the presence of phylloquinone in germinated P. For reference, phylloquinone levels in A. The result lent support to phylloquinone biosynthesis in the holoparasite. We next examined other candidates that could participate in the reduction of demethylphylloquinone at the penultimate step step 9. Besides the multifunctional NDC1 Fatihi et al. PaNQR transcripts were detected at moderate levels throughout P. In contrast, PaQR2 was well expressed during early stages of P. The structural similarity between phylloquinone and its demethylated precursor, and the reported substrate promiscuity of the orthologous TvQR2 Wrobel et al. Identification of the phylloquinone pathway in P. However, the predicted polypeptides of late pathway steps PaMenA and PaMenG are truncated at the N-terminus relative to their photoautotrophic orthologs Figure 2; Supplemental Figures S4—S5 and scored poorly for plastid-targeting with multiple prediction programs Figure 2A. Characterization of MenA and MenG. Heatmaps show prediction strengths above the 50th percentile of each method. Those with a high prediction score from at least one program are deemed potentially plastidial, as not all methods accurately predict experimentally characterized plastidial proteins asterisks. Introns are not drawn to scale. D MK-8, demethyl menaquinone Branch support is shown for major nodes. Scale indicates the number of amino acid substitutions per site. The absence of an N-terminal plastid-targeting peptide in PaMenA suggests its localization to other cellular membranes. The penultimate PaQR2, like its photoautotrophic orthologs, also lacks plastid-targeting sequence Supplemental Figure S6 , which contrasts with the alternative NDC1s that are predicted plastidial Supplemental Table S1. Indeed, PM association has been reported for A. These data suggest the post-peroxisomal steps are likely targeted to PM in P. The absence of the N-terminal transit signal is not expected to impact mature enzyme catalysis. The E. The data provide biochemical evidence for canonical activity of the N-truncated PaMenG. In contrast, only N-truncated short isoforms were found in two other Orobanchaceae holoparasites, Aphyllon syn. Phylogenetic analysis clustered the plastidial and PM isoforms into distinct groups for both MenA and MenG Figure 2, F and G , suggesting their origin from lineage-specific duplication events hereafter, the PM-localized short isoforms are referred to as MenA2 and MenG2. We detected high levels of coexpression among phylloquinone genes in the holoparasites, reminiscent of the patterns observed in photosynthetic taxa, including T. Interestingly, early- and late-pathway genes showed distinct coexpression patterns in the obligate hemiparasite S. To shed light on PM-phylloquinone functions, we extracted the top most highly correlated transcripts for each phylloquinone gene except the alternative QR2 and NDC1. The union set contained 2,, 3,, and 3, unique transcripts for P. The smaller P. Subsets of gene ontology GO -annotated biological process transcripts , 1,, and 1, for P. Coexpression of phylloquinone genes. Relevant genes or gene members involved in phylloquinone biosynthesis are boxed. The exceptions are A. G, GO enrichments of phylloquinone-coexpressed genes defined as the union set of the top most highly correlated transcripts for each phylloquinone gene. Only the top 10 categories are shown. We focused on transcripts assigned to oxidation—reduction, defense, and photosynthesis GO terms for coexpression network analysis. Inclusion of orthologs from all three parasites resulted in , , and nonredundant transcripts from P. Network visualization of coexpression patterns revealed striking differences Figure 4. Two dense modules were detected for photosynthetic S. However, only one dense module containing parasitism genes was detected for the holoparasite. The phylloquinone genes orange nodes were highly interconnected with parasitism genes in the P. We ranked genes by the number of edges they shared with phylloquinone genes referred to as k PhQ in each network and observed a strong enrichment of phylloquinone-interconnected genes in the smaller P. Phylloquinone gene coexpression networks. A, Network visualization of the three parasitic plants. Edge thickness reflects the coexpression strength. Key gene nodes are color-coded by pathway or family, and QR2 is colored differently from the other phylloquinone genes NDC1 was not captured in any of the networks. Horizontal bars depict the distribution of nodes according to their connectivity with phylloquinone genes k PhQ. B, Bayesian phylogeny of peroxidases PRX. Orthologs of experimentally characterized PRXs are color-coded by species in the blue clade. Developmental stages are the same as in Figure 1. Several oxidoreductases known to be involved in parasitism were captured in the phylloquinone gene network of P. The phylloquinone-coexpression strength k PhQ was highest in P. Thus, the phylloquinone-coexpression strength of the secretory PRXs appears to be positively correlated with parasitism. Also implicated in parasitism are QR1 and QR2, depending on the species. QR1 was not captured in any of the phylloquinone subnetworks, whereas the phylloquinone-coexpression strength of QR2 was highest in P. These results suggest a link between phylloquinone biosynthesis and parasitism. We next searched the P. The P. PaFRO1 transcript levels were highest in prehaustorial and haustorial tissues Figure 4D , suggesting potential involvement in the PM redox system there. Interestingly, S. Its counterpart in S. The differential coordination between P. We present multiple lines of evidence to support a functional phylloquinone biosynthetic pathway in the nonphotosynthetic P. Our data further revealed the post-peroxisomal steps as key to flexible phylloquinone biosynthesis Figure 5. QR2 has previously been shown to function in mitigating oxidative stress in bacteria, yeast, and plants Laskowski et al. In plants, QR2s exhibit root-biased expression and are highly responsive to auxins and quinones, including HIFs in the case of parasitic plants Matvienko et al. The proposed QR2 involvement in PM phylloquinone biosynthesis thus represents another example of a multi-functional NAD P H oxidoreductase for the penultimate step, analogous to NDC1 in plastidial phylloquinone biosynthesis Fatihi et al. Evolutionary changes in subcellular localization of phylloquinone biosynthesis. Circle colors denote different subcellular compartments: green, plastid; orange, peroxisome px ; purple, PM. Branches of the simplified eudicot phylogeny in the middle point to corresponding illustrations of changing pathway organization with representative species indicated. Clockwise from lower left, exclusively plastidial late steps in rosids and some asterids such as solanales; top left, dual plastidial and plasma membrane targeting in certain photosynthetic Orobanchaceae, attributable to lamiale-specific duplication of MenA and MenG. Differential losses of MenA and MenG genes in other photosynthetic, hemiparasitic top right and holoparasitic lower right lineages, with the latter exclusively PM targeting. PM-localized MenA2 and MenG2 likely arose from their plastidial counterparts via gene duplication in the common ancestor of Lamiales Figure 5. However, the evolutionary fate of the duplicates varied among parasitic lineages with different photosynthetic capabilities Figure 5. The holoparasitic P. On the other hand, the photosynthetic T. In both T. The data suggest that expression divergence of the two phylloquinone pathways in the hemiparasites predated emergence of holoparasites. An outstanding question in PM phylloquinone biosynthesis regards the co-substrate for MenA-mediated prenylation. In photoautotrophs, the prenyl precursor of plastidial prenylquinones is phytyl-diphosphate derived from geranylgeranyl-diphosphate via de novo synthesis or from phytol released upon chlorophyll degradation Keller et al. Phelipanche and related Orobanche seeds are filled with protein and oil bodies Joel et al. Whether the prenyl moiety of PM phylloquinone is supplied by the cytosolic isoprenoid pathway or via other mechanisms requires further investigation. Membrane localization is a defining feature of lipid-soluble vitamin K in bacteria, animals and plants Nowicka and Kruk, Retention and redirection of the phylloquinone pathway to PM in the nonphotosynthetic Phelipanche suggest a role analogous to the plastidial counterpart in thylakoid membranes or to menaquinone in bacterial membranes. The early stages of the parasitic lifecycle can be characterized as a continuum of oxidative events, from activation and perception of host HIFs, to induction of haustoria for host penetration and vascular connection Keyes et al. Redox modulation is also integral to normal growth and development, as well as defense and counterdefense in the case of host—parasite interactions Kim et al. Redox-active phylloquinone in the PM may function in all of these processes, but most likely in ways specifically associated with haustorium formation based on network inference and coexpression with known parasitism genes presented herein. This interpretation is consistent with previous studies where the vitamin K antagonist dicumarol reduced haustorium development in T. Recently, two studies independently identified an A. Its parasitic orthologs from Phtheirospermum japonicum and S. These previously unannotated orthologs were not included in our network analysis, but of the two PaCARD transcripts we recovered, one exhibited strong coexpression with phylloquinone genes. It is tempting to speculate that phylloquinone functions as an endogenous quinone signal to bolster HIF-induced CARD signaling for haustorium formation. In closing, our work highlights a link between PM phylloquinone and parasitism that warrants future investigation. RNAi silencing of QR2 in Phtheirospermum japonicum has indeed demonstrated a negative effect on haustorium formation Ishida et al. The existence of the alternative pathway in nonparasitic lamiales should also motivate research into the functions of PM phylloquinone in photoautotrophic species. After quality control filtering, cleaned reads were assembled using the custom PLAS pipeline. Mapped reads were used for de novo assembly by Trinity Haas et al. This process was repeated for up to 10 iterations until the output was stable. Assembled sequences were filtered to remove potential contaminations e. The transcriptome was annotated against A. Transcript abundance was estimated using eXpress 1. All phylloquinone and relevant transcripts described in this work were manually curated Supplemental Data Set S1. Phylloquinone gene sequences of photosynthetic species were downloaded from Phytozome v Subcellular localization was predicted by Predotar 1. Gene structures were drawn by Gene Structure Display Server 2. The exon—intron junctions of parasitic MenA and MenG were inferred by Blast alignment of transcripts against genomic short read data of P. The union sets were subjected to GO enrichment analysis using topGO 2. To facilitate comparative analysis between species, ortholog groups were constructed by OrthoFinder 1. Network visualization was performed in Cytoscape 3. RNA-seq data of A. Reads were mapped by Tophat 2. Bayesian phylogenetic tree was constructed using MrBayes 3. Phelipanche aegyptiaca seeds were surface-sterilized, pre-conditioned on moist filter paper for 7—10 d, and treated with GR for 4—6 d before collection of stage 1 germinated seeds as described Westwood et al. Three biological replicates from independent germination experiments were used for the analysis. Nonimbibed A. Tissues were snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen, freeze-dried, and milled to a fine powder for phylloquinone analysis as described Booth et al. Phylloquinone peaks were verified by comparison with the authentic standard Sigma and concentrations were estimated using calibration curves of the standard. All constructs were sequence verified. Agrobacterium -mediated transformation of Nicotiana benthamiana was performed as described and regenerated on selection media Pathi et al. Root samples from independent transformants were screened under a fluorescence microscope and at least three positive lines were further examined using a Zeiss LSM upright confocal microscope in the Biomedical Microscopy Core at the University of Georgia. GFP signal was detected using an Argon excitation laser nm and an emission filter at — nm, and mCherry signal was obtained using a HeNe excitation laser nm and an emission filter at — nm. Sequence-verified plasmids were transformed into E. At least two PCR-confirmed colonies per construct were used for complementation experiments. Approximately 30 mg of freeze-dried bacterial cells were extracted as described Booth et al. Reverse-phase HPLC conditions were the same as above except with a run time of 40 min. The accession numbers of genes mentioned in this work are provided in Supplemental Table S3. Supplemental Figure S2. Supplemental Figure S3. Supplemental Figure S4. MenA sequence alignment. Supplemental Figure S5. MenG sequence alignment. Supplemental Figure S6. QR2 sequence alignment. Supplemental Figure S7. Supplemental Table S1. Supplemental Table S3. Accession numbers. Supplemental Data Set S1. PLAS-assembled or 1KP-derived and manually curated transcript sequences of phylloquinone biosynthetic and coexpressed genes described in the manuscript. Supplemental Data Set S2. Lists of transcripts used in coexpression network analysis. We thank L. Curley, M. Tsai, N. Rodman, and K. Aulakh for laboratory assistance, M. Kandasamy for confocal microscopy assistance, and D. Lynn Emory University for insightful discussion. This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Plant Physiol. Find articles by Xi Gu. Find articles by Ing-Gin Chen. Find articles by Scott A Harding. Find articles by Batbayar Nyamdari. Find articles by Maria A Ortega. 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Socioeconomic Assessment of No-Till In Wheat Cropping System: A Case Study in Algeria

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The study based on a sample of 28 adherent farms in an international project of Conservation Agriculture adoption for smallholders in North Africa. Though, no-till still faced some local social and technical constraints that are relatively easy to overcome. If Algeria put forward its best efforts through increasing no-till in the suitable zones, many objectives could be achieved in the context of preserving natural resources and building up farming sustainability. Download PDF. Cite this Item: Rouabhi A. Nowadays, one of the crucial challenges is to feed a growing and more demanding world population with reduced external inputs and minimal environmental impacts. Conservation agriculture CA is a production system aims at reducing the effort and cost of farming with the intention of protecting agricultural resources such as soil, water and biodiversity. Motivated by agronomic, economic and environmental considerations, this technique meets the criteria of sustainable agriculture and has gradually been imposed worldwide. This trend is closely associated with an increased awareness about the environmental externalities of the conventional farming practices in the public and policy arena Krishna et al. Globally, farmers are adopting CA at a dramatic rate, from 45 million hectares in Derpsch et al. NT has the potential to address the economic and environmental challenges of sustainable intensification such as reducing costs of labor, fuel and machinery, greenhouse gases emission and therefore increasing carbon sequestration, all of that could be tools of fighting climate change. The initiation of scientific NT attention can be traced back to the s in Brazil, where the first NT field trials were conducted Derpsch, NT practice by minimizing the soil disturbance and providing residue soil cover, is found to increase the soil fertility and water use efficiency, thus helping cereal farmers to sustain the crop yield over a longer term Benites, ; Dhehibi et al. These opportunities could help countries meeting their commitments to the United Nations SDGs by In Algeria, cereals are mainly grown under rainfed conditions. Annually, about 3. Moreover, the northern part of Algeria is highly subjected to soil erosion estimated annually at 2. Many research projects were conducted in northern Algeria for developing NT technologies Zaghouane et al. Since then, several government subsidy programs have been implemented to faster it. While, adoption process faced continually socioeconomic and technical constraints Rouabhi et al. Over time, technology adoption needs to be monitored by extension services and scientists to draw attention to pros and cons and how to improve adoption process. Rainfall and temperatures are subject to large intra and inter-annual variations, which impact the annual yields that fluctuate from 0. The low productivity levels of wheat in the semi-arid zone is not due solely to environmental factors, it is also the result of both crop management and adaptation to local conditions. Local farmers became interested in NT wheat cropping in Bouzerzour et al. Much of this interest was a result of the availability of NT seeders, the technical and financial support provided by extension services of agriculture. This project aimed at adapting CA for rapid adoption by smallholder farmers in North Africa. The study focused on a sample of 28 tracked farmers involved in NT adoption process for three years in CANA project. Indeed, farms were financially subsidized and technically supported during the project period. But, in , farms no longer received incentives. Given this new situation, it would be appropriate to assess the artificial effects of the CANA project and hence the actual choices of NT adoption by farms. If NT practice has positive impacts, thereafter the adoption rate of NT will be reliable afterwards. Against, if NT has not enough advantages, farms will abandon it and return back to the old system CT. In Algeria , the average farm size of smallholders represent The small scale farming is the most dominant in the region because of the land tenure law and the recursive division of land by families. Through a targeted sampling method, gathered data turned around financial and technical aspects of 28 selected farms, combining NT and CT for durum wheat cropping. Supplemental information was gathered via interviews with officials of agricultural services and cooperatives. The collected data were got verified from experts and the socioeconomic team of CANA project. Every possible care was taken to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information especially for financial data. At first, the study focused on the farms characterization and then went through a financial assessment; the accounting model used in this study was based on the gross margin. Indeed, the average annual costs and returns for one hectare of NT and tilled durum wheat were calculated under rainfed conditions. Variable costs referred to the overheads which varied directly according to the level of production of grown crop. They included seed, hired labor, fertilizers, pesticides, and hired machinery. However, fixed costs are defined as costs that do not change with the level of production, they include depreciation, interest, repair maintenance and insurance Sofijanova et al. Indeed, fixed costs depend on the quality and the costs of investment. The profitability levels of durum wheat farming in both cropping systems were examined in a gross margin comparative analysis; the gross margin is the difference between the gross income and total variable costs. Break even yield is a ratio of total variable costs and the gross income of one quintal of product grain and straw. The results, calculated in the national currency unit, were converted to US Dollar at the actual rate of exchange during crop year. The characterization of farms was based on some socioeconomic components, taking into account the criteria of the farm and the personal skills of the farm holder such as the age, the educational level and the technical level of agricultural training. Indeed, these criteria allow a fine understanding of the decision making process regarding NT adoption in farms. The observed age spanned between a minimum of 32 years and a maximum of 66 years. This finding corroborates the results of the general census of agriculture in , stating that the age of Algerian farmers is high. Indeed, the higher age may give an idea on the skills and the accumulated experience within farm. This result is contrary to the figures put forward by Rouabhi et al. This contrast could be due to the targeted sampling method used in this study. Accordingly to the educational level, the observed level of agricultural technical training was relatively high as well. In Algeria, the role of agricultural training centers in developing skills and training farmers is very limited. Locally, the low level of education and the lack of agricultural training were the most important obstacles to the development and extension of agricultural technology. Keeping regular records on-farm of all technical and financial activities is an important component of farm management and decision-making for long term planning. Farm Gross margin is one of the simple financial means that helps to improve farm potentials. In the following parts, a comparison is implemented between the profitability of NT and CT of one hectare of durum wheat. Generally, the grain yield is the backbone of the economic income of farms practicing cereal crops. Within the sample the average grain yield of durum wheat were Locally, grain yields were usually variable from one year to another; they are strongly associated with the amount and the distribution of the annual rainfall. It should be noted that CA technology could improve resilience of farms to climatic hazards, if it is well combined with crop rotation and right crops residue management. Moreover, NT could significantly increase rainfed crop productivity in dry climates, suggesting that it may become an important climate change adaptation strategy for ever-drier regions of the world Pittelkow et al. Indeed, sales of straw represent an additional financial resource for farms, because in the semi-arid region the production system is based on the combination of livestock farming and cereals Rouabhi et al. According to the principle rules of NT, farms have to keep more straw on field, in order to guarantee more organic cover, able to preserve soil moisture and minimize erosion, which could have a positive impact on farm sustainability over time. According to the accounting model, variable costs are broken down into input costs, hired machinery and miscellaneous. Krishna et al. Locally, farmers used from 1. The seeding rate is generally related to several technical factors such as pedoclimatic conditions, specific weight of wheat varieties and seeder adjustment. According to the dry farming techniques applied locally, farms usually adopt a biennial rotation, cereal on uncultivated fallow, where, the soil is plowed in spring and left to rest until autumn and then re-worked and seeded. This technique aimed at weeding, scheduling fallow works and conserving soil moisture by taking advantage of spring rainfall for the following year Bernard, This procedure seemed to have supplemental costs in comparison with NT. The advantage here is in favor of NT because of the total absence of land preparations. Godwin showed that the NT system could potentially have a work rate of 2. Seeding operation was more expensive in NT; it was 3 times more expensive. To be managed, the NT seeder required a powerful tractor, higher than horsepower hp. Also, the seeder unavailability in the region implied more expensive rental services. Generally, the number of interventions is higher in NT, where farms are forced to perform a pre-seeding treatment to completely eradicate all plants through Glyphosate use. Erenstein et al. However, Krishna et al. It should be noted that grain yields under the NT system may drop during the first years of adoption. Morris et al. Also, a targeted review of NT studies in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia reported at high risk of short-term yield declines for major annual crops Brouder and Gomez-Macpherson, Break-even yield analysis computed the yield necessary at a given level of prices to cover all variable costs. However, Breakeven yield in CT is 9. Generally, the economic profitability is certain in both cropping systems, but in NT system it could provide more advantages in economic, agronomic and environmental terms. The substitution of CT by NT allowed more even distribution of labor over the year, because of the elimination of soil preparations operations. Amount of time used up for each operation in minutes are shown in Table 2. The major part of work time was allocated to soil preparation in CT with minutes corresponding to However, the great part of work time in NT was taken by harvesting, baling and freight operations with minutes Fuel consumption under NT was invariably less than under CT, though the difference will depend strongly on the soil type, the depth of ploughing and adequacy of the input energy to be used and the machinery. In this context, the NT system was less emitting CO 2 ; hence this cropping system could be an alternative to fight against green house gas emission. The abovementioned results indicated that economic and environmental benefits of NT are confirmed and unequivocal; in spite of some constraints facing its adoption by local farmers. In , after the CANA project, the area reached ha with only 8 remaining farms, implying 20 abandoner farms. Controversially, the number of farms adopting NT has dropped while the area of NT has increased, meaning that the eight farms increased NT areas and found NT more fitting, whereas the average area of NT by farm grew up from 6. Due to the completion of the CANA project that provided subsidies to farms, some of them were unable to pursue NT practice either for financial or technical reasons. As the success of NT adoption may be influenced by artificial supports, this may reclassify virtuous and potential farms from opportunists ones. In this regard, Nyanga pointed out that once a subsidy project is completed farms will stop practicing direct seeding because they no longer receive artificial incentives. Through CANA project, adherent farms aimed at improving their economic skills via adopting NT, by minimizing production costs and saving time of labor. This rising rate of time consideration is due to the positive effects of NT practices experienced by adoptive farmers. According to Raunet et al. According to the sample, NT adoption faced some resistance regarding the socioeconomic and technical context; the evolution of these constraints varied over time and is linked to the comprehension and the ability of farms to be accustomed with. According to Figure 2, the feeling of farms towards the major constraints facing NT adoption during and after the CANA project has changed completely. The NT seeder is a specific seeder, it is very heavy, weighing between and kg and it needs a powerful tractor to be managed. Locally, the majority of tractors are medium power and they are unable to lift NT seeder, therefore acquiring a powerful tractor becomes a necessity for NT adoption. During the early years of NT experience, yield may drop because of the lack of mastery of both machinery and weed control; as a result yield performance could be affected. Pittelkow et al. NT farming systems require an increased amount of herbicides, as mechanical weed control and tillage is not a valid option for these systems Friedrich, This could be explained by the shift of some farms to other weed control alternatives such as using crop rotation. It should be noted that the ownership of NT seeder is paramount to continue the adoption of NT, the majority of farms that abandoned NT did not possess their own NT seeder. Said et al. Locally, sheep farming has a social anchoring and is well integrated with cereal practices. Thus, the introduction of new technologies should take into account the local habits and values. While this is less of an issue in the study area where soils are heavy and crops are harvested in summer and seeding takes place in autumn where soils are dry. NT gives the soil more stable structure and contributes to increase soil organic matter Chan, , hence, soil compaction would be reduced after a few years of practice. Indeed, Farmers who considered that NT increase soil compaction made their judgment on the basis of a short period of experience. Perez et al. Indeed, keeping stubble residues on the surface of soil lead to the emergence of fungal pathogens. Abusive use of pesticides in NT has an economic, environmental and human health concerns. In fact, repeated use of the same herbicide resulted in weeds resistance. The development of NT techniques has been accompanied by an increasing use of herbicides necessary for controlling the development of weeds which is no longer assured in part by agronomic techniques. Conservation systems are therefore efficient, but at high costs of chemical inputs, then the farmer should not be penalized by having to pay higher chemical expenses Williams, It is clear that all the classification criteria favor the NT system, going through wheat yield, cost of production, time of labor, fuel consumption and the gross margin. Probably, finding the answer involve other dimensions more than the quantitative analysis. Moving backward to the eight farmers; why did guys maintain the NT? Certainly, they have typical and interesting characteristics that should be underlined. These farmers have a predisposition to undertake new technologies and they were totally convinced of the NT adoption and their decision seemed to be conclusive. They have high levels of education and agricultural training; most of them possess NT drill with a powerful tractor. They respect CA concepts regarding compliance with the use of crop rotation with legumes and the stubble residues cover. These criteria seemed are keys to success, for this purpose, it is recommended to take into account these characteristics to select farms candidates, likely to adhere to future adoption projects of NT in the region. Agricultural policies should be more involved in the NT adoption; it should be noted that the most eminent problem facing NT adoption process is the unavailability of NT drill and its high cost of rental services. In spite of that, efforts are still not enough to achieve a high level of NT adoption. Efforts should emphasize on the improvement of the technical levels of farmers by strengthening the agricultural extension machinery, training, workshops and innovation research. Indeed, the innovation research has a paramount effect on the NT adoption in the local conditions, the implementation of complementary scientific disciplines namely: agronomy, ecology, sociology…etc could provide solutions for CA adoption and then ensure farm sustainability. Benites J. Effect of no-till on conservation of the soil and soil fertility. In: Goddard T. Special Publication , 3: Berranen H. Bouzerzour H. Brouder S. The impact of conservation agriculture on smallholder agricultural yields: a scoping review of the evidence. Chan Y. Increasing soil organic carbon of agricultural land. Primefact , Demmak A. Derpsch R. No-tillage and conservation agriculture: a progress report. No-till farming systems. Special Publication : Current status of adoption of no-till farming in the world and some of its main benefits. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering , 3: Dhehibi B. Biophysical and Econometric analysis of adoption of soil and water conservation techniques in the semiarid region of Sidi Bouzid Central Tunisia. New Medit , 2: Erenstein O. Field Crops Research , FAO, CA Adoption Worldwide, Aquastat. Accessed: Friedrich T. Does no-till farming require more herbicides? Outlooks on Pest Management , Godwin R. The Worshipful Company of Farmers, London. Conservation tillage-technical, ecological and economic aspects. Krishna V. Farmer access and differential impacts of zero tillage technology in the subsistence wheat farming systems of West Bengal, India. Mahdi M. Direction des Services Agricoles. Morin O. Morris N. A review of strip tillage for sugar beet production — A desk study. Nyanga P. Factors influencing adoption and area under conservation agriculture: a mixed methods approach. Sustainable Agriculture Research , 1: Perez C. Seedbank characteristics of a Nebraska sandhills prairie. Journal of Range Management : Pittelkow C. Productivity limits and potentials of the principles of conservation agriculture. Nature , Raunet M. Actes , xxxviiiii. Rouabhi A. Spatiotemporal characterization of the annual rainfall in Setif region — Algeria. Agriculture , 8: Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences , 5: New Medit, vol 13, n. Said S. Le semis direct, un mode de gestion agrobiologique des sols. Shaw R. London: Routledge. Sofijanova E. Comparative economic analysis of wheat production using certified and uncertified seed: The case of Ovcepole region in Republic of Macedonia. Evaluation of five organophosphate insecticides and herbicides. William R. Farm Business Management Handbook. Illinois University. Zaghouane O. Zoghbi S. All Journals. Submit your article Referee access Guidelines for authors. This site uses functional and statistical cookies, necessary for a better browsing experience, and third-party cookies. In case of acceptance, your data will be stored in compliance with art. For further information you can consult our. Functional Functional Always active The technical storage or access is strictly necessary for the legitimate purpose of enabling the use of a specific service explicitly requested by the subscriber or user, or for the sole purpose of carrying out the transmission of a communication over an electronic communications network. 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