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Quinoa is recognized as a crop of great value in terms of tolerance to abiotic stresses and there is growing interest to introduce it in marginal agricultural production systems worldwide. Also, quinoa is one of the most nutritious food crops currently known and the nutritive properties of the crop are seen as a mean to fight malnutrition globally. Various quinoa cultivars have been screened for tolerance to salinity, water-use efficiency and nutritional quality and the positive attributes found in them have created even wider global interest in its cultivation. This paper summarizes 15 years of studies on assessing the potential for introducing the crop in a few countries of the Middle East and North Africa MENA and Central Asia regions and describes the key constraints for scaling-up the production under marginal growing conditions in the newly introduced countries. Quinoa has been recognized as a climate resilient crop of great value and there is an increasing effort to introduce it in different marginal agriculture production systems of the world. Various quinoa cultivars have been screened for tolerance to abiotic stresses, especially salinity, drought, and frost and the positive attributes of the crop have created wider global interest in its cultivation Jacobsen, ; Jacobsen et al. Also, quinoa is one of the most nutritious food crops currently known. The seeds contains high quality protein, which has all of the essential amino acids including lysine, methionine and threonine that are scarce in cereals and legumes Repo-Carrasco et al. Worldwide, the demand for quinoa is growing, especially in the health food segment, but current supplies are unable to match it. Besides the use for human consumption, quinoa seed has other uses as livestock and poultry feed. The whole plant can be used as green fodder and harvest residues can be fed to the animals. In the context of the Middle East and North Africa MENA and Central Asia regions, where soil and water salinity is increasingly becoming a constraint to agricultural production, quinoa is seen as an alternative crop with significant potential to have a central role in sustaining farm productivity. ICBA has identified and developed five high yielding salt- and heat-tolerant lines that are now ready to be tested in other agro-ecological zones. ICBA considers quinoa as an essential crop in its efforts to sustain agricultural productivity amidst growing threat of salinity and water scarcity, as well as to tackle hunger, malnutrition and poverty in the MENA and Central Asia regions. To fully exploit the potential of the crop for marginal environments, identification of new and high-yielding quinoa genotypes with good local adaptation and high nutritional quality are crucial, which requires intensified screening and adaption research. This paper summarizes 15 years of studies in assessing the potential of quinoa for introducing it in some countries of the MENA and Central Asia Regions. In view of quinoa's potential as a stress-tolerant, climate resilient future-proof crop, ICBA is developing best practices for its production and management in marginal environments. The Center is also focusing on utilization and marketing of the produce and on fostering knowledge transfer, strengthening competencies and exchange of experiences among the various stakeholders within the MENA and Central Asia regions. The soil at the experimental site was fine sand and moderately alkaline pH 8. The seeds were sown in the first week of November and each accession was planted in three 3 m-rows with spacing of 50 cm between the rows and one meter between two accessions. The distance between plants within each row was maintained at 25 cm. Of the accessions planted, seeds were harvested from 73 accessions that survived through the growing season and based on the seed yield data, the top 20 performers were selected for subsequent evaluation, carried out during the cropping seasons and Rao and Shahid, The agronomic practices such as irrigation and applications of fertilizers were the same as described previously. The data on grain yield of the 20 accessions from the two cropping seasons and are presented in Table 1. The seed yield among the accessions varied between Averaged over the two seasons, the yield ranged between The studies showed that quinoa has good adaptation and can be successfully cultivated in the Arabian Peninsula. In a further study conducted at the ICBA Research Station in Dubai during , the performance of five top-yielding accessions selected on the basis of average seed yield from previous studies were further evaluated using low-salinity irrigation water EC w 2. Analysis of the data revealed significant differences for plant height, number of primary branches and number of inflorescences per plant. However, differences among accessions for all other traits including inflorescence length, seed yield per plant, fresh and dry biomass were found to be marginal. The seed yield among the five accessions ranged between During course of the yield trials over the years, mass selection to eliminate inferior plant types and improve the yield potential of the selected accessions has resulted in five improved lines Q1—Q5 which were used in further studies described below. Table 1. Grain yields in 20 selected quinoa accessions grown in winter and source: Rao and Shahid, The results from the preliminary trials undertaken at ICBA Research Station gave sufficient indication of the potential of quinoa as a salt-tolerant alternative crop. However, further investigations were needed to study the performance under a range of biophysical environments especially at various soil and water salinities to introduce the crop to the farmers. While the two locations planted in the Western Region were agricultural farms leased for the trials, those in the Northern Emirates were the federal government's regional research stations. Each set of lines was sown in a randomized complete block design RCBD with three replications. In all cases, the distance between rows was 50 cm and between plants within the row was 25 cm. Spacing between two adjacent plots was maintained at 1 m. The amount of water and fertilizers applied were the same for all the five locations and as described in the previous section. Table 2. Quinoa yield trails in the UAE: Soil and water characteristics at the locations and details of accessions evaluated Rao, The green biomass yield was also high, the mean of the three cultivars being 4. In trials, the salinity of irrigation water in the five locations varied between 2. Seed yield from trials in the Northern Emirates correlated with the salinity of irrigation water EC w , which was 6. In the western region despite higher salinity of the irrigation water, significantly higher seed yields were recorded than those from the Northern Emirates. The results from yield trials showed high degree of variability in the performance of the different cultivars across locations Supplementary Figure 1. While no major differences existed among the different locations in terms of radiation, mean maximum and minimum temperatures or precipitation during the growing period, the differences in yields could only be attributed to differences in physicochemical properties of the soils and water other than the EC and pH which were measured , for which more detailed analyses are warranted. The two locations planted in the Western Region being agricultural soils, possibly had a more favorable microenvironment compared to the sandy soils with poorly developed profiles at the research stations in Northern Emirates. Nevertheless, the exceptionally higher yields obtained with highly saline irrigation water in the Western Region showed that quinoa, which is a facultative halophyte, not only endures salinity but also some of its cultivars prosper under saline conditions, therefore has huge potential as an alternative food and feed crop when growing traditional crops becomes uneconomical due to increased groundwater salinity. The results besides confirming quinoa's suitability to withstand high salinity in water and soils, also demonstrated that it has good adaptation to the hyper-arid desert environments and is an excellent candidate for crop diversification in the UAE as well as other countries with similar climatic conditions. Figure 1. The mean seed yields of four quinoa lines grown at five locations in the UAE during In addition to the UAE, ICBA has recently undertook pilot trials in six other MENA and Central Asian countries and the selected quinoa lines proved to be very productive even under very poor soils sandy soils and under conditions of deficit irrigation and high salinity. For instance, in , five quinoa lines Q1—Q5 were evaluated for seed and forage yields in three countries of Central Asia, namely: Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan under different eco-agroclimatic zones that significantly differ in soil characteristics and agricultural practices ICBA, Figure 2. The mean seed yields of five quinoa lines grown at four locations in Central Asia. The error bars represent standard errors of the means ICBA, The high yields obtained under marginal agro-climatic conditions in different locations are indicative of the potential and further investigations are needed to study the performance of a much wider range of genetically diverse accessions at various soil and water salinities to fully exploit the available genetic diversity within the crop. Quinoa is a predominantly self-pollinating species and considerable variation exists between cultivars for many of the desired characters. Therefore, it should be possible to select better adapted genotypes with high yields and nutritional quality combined with salt-and drought-tolerance. Identification of desirable genotypes needs to be followed by work on optimization of cultural practices to maximize productivity under the local conditions. Quinoa was evaluated and introduced in Morocco for the first time in growing season in two locations, Khenifra mountain region and Rabat coastal region. Obtained results are presented in Figure 3. Among the tested lines, GDK performed the best under high altitude conditions due to its origin in the high altitudes of Altiplano Andean Plateau , while most of the other lines showed adaptation to the coastal region probably because of provenance effect Benlhabib et al. Figure 3. In Morocco, in a field experiment conducted in Rhamna region, four selected quinoa lines L11, L, L, L, L along with two commercial varieties Titicaca and Puno were evaluated for phenological and agro-morphological characteristics Filali, Titicaca and L recorded the highest seed yield 1. The line L was most affected by water stress, L and L11 were less affected as the reduction in yield compared to the fully irrigated treatment was less Supplementary Figures 5 , 6. Figure 4. Responses of 5 quinoa lines to different irrigation levels in terms of yield Filali, Quinoa seeds are an exceptionally nutritious food source, owing to their high protein content with all essential amino acids, lack of gluten, and high content of several minerals such as Ca, Mg, Fe, and it is also rich in vitamins. Abiotic stress is known to induce considerable changes in the composition and quality of cereal grains such as wheat Ashraf, Despite quinoa's growing popularity, the knowledge about the relationship between the growth conditions and the nutritional profile is still limited. Characterization of the nutritional and anti-nutritional properties of quinoa and evaluation of the effects of extreme growing conditions on the nutritional quality will provide strategic information for the introduction and promotion of quinoa in new environments besides aiding in the selection of nutritionally high and stable cultivars. Results from analysis of the chemical composition of the seeds harvested from three locations Al Dahid, Ghayathi and Madinat Zayed with varying levels of irrigation water salinity 2. However, significant differences were found in the mineral content of the seeds. Especially, seeds harvested from Ghayathi and Madina zayed had higher Na content, but lower levels of Ca and Fe compared to those harvested from Al Dhaid Rao, These findings have significant implications, especially for introduction of quinoa in highly saline areas, therefore detailed investigations are recommended for confirmation. Large yield variations per hectare were observed across locations within and between countries, the mean seed yields ranging from 0. The highest yield 7. Convinced by quinoa's performance, one private agriculture company in Egypt and a farmer in Lebanon planted quinoa on a large-scale 1—2 hectares with a plan to further extend the production together with improvement in capacity of farmers and generating market demand. However, private sector involvement in quinoa production will mainly depend on the conducive policies of the governments, allocation of financial and human resources for research and development of new varieties along with the improvement in the production technologies, processing and utilization within the region. In quinoa, deficit irrigation DI strategy has been widely investigated as a valuable and sustainable production strategy in regions where intra-seasonal dry spells are of considerable importance Garcia et al. By limiting water applications to drought sensitive growth stages, the practice aims to maximize water productivity and to stabilize, rather than maximize yields Geerts and Raes, Several experiments were conducted at IAV-CHA during two growing seasons and in order to evaluate the effect of deficit irrigation with treated wastewater Hirich et al. The results clearly showed that the highest yields were obtained in the fully irrigated treatment followed by the treatment stressed during vegetative growth stage. The finding indicates that applying deficit irrigation during vegetative growth stage results in increased root to shoot ratio. Early water deficit induced root development and full irrigation applied during flowering and grain filling allowed the plants to produce more biomass due to the well-developed root system, possibly leading to higher levels of water and nutrient uptake. The results clearly showed that line DO showed the highest grain yield compared to QM Under rainfed conditions, seed yields were reduced by One of the most important factors which limits crop growth and production is water scarcity. As already discussed, studies show that deficit irrigation is a judicious strategy to increase water use efficiency and CWP in water-scarce environments. Organic amendments, on the other hand, improve the water holding capacity of soils and combing them with deficit irrigation can be a practical solution for sustainable yields as the negative effect of water scarcity can be compensated through the increased water holding capacity of the soils and there by improved availability of water and nutrients to the plants. In line with this, a study was conducted in at IAV-CHA to evaluate the combined effect of organic amendment compost and deficit irrigation using treated wastewater on productivity of the quinoa line D during October to March Hirich et al. While the highest seed yield It can be concluded that organic amendment improve quinoa yields significantly under deficit irrigation conditions by improving the water holding capacity of the soils and the access to water and nutrients by the plants. Combining deficit irrigation and organic amendment also allowed maximizing the CWP. Figure 5. Combined effect of organic amendment and deficit irrigation on quinoa yield and water productivity Hirich et al. The combined effect of water stress and nitrogen application was studied on a quinoa line D in a field trial laid out in split-plot design at IAV-CHA, during the year Supplementary Figures 2 , 4. The results suggested that seed yield increased with increasing nitrogen supply, though the response varied with the level of water stress Figure 6. Figure 6. Combined effect of water stress and N fertilization on quinoa yield and water productivity Hirich, High nitrogen fertilizer rate significantly increased yield during both the seasons. However, nitrogen use efficiency has reduced with increased rate of nitrogen application. In a pot experiment with two quinoa lines Quinoa and Quinoa and two commercial varieties Titicaca and Puno. Lavini et al. The results showed that both the lines responded similarly to the application of nitrogen and yield has improved significantly with increased nitrogen rate. This difference in terms of CWP can be explained in terms of the difference in water uptake which was higher in the fresh water treatment and lower in the saline treatments. Three lines of quinoa QM, QS, D cultivated in open field were irrigated with treated wastewater with different levels of salinity in order to assess the impact on yield El Youssfi et al. Significant differences were found in the performance of the lines—QM being the most productive with an average grain yield of 6. Simple seed germination tests were conducted at ICBA, Dubai to study the role of Bontera TM Biofertilizer and humic acid in enhancing seed germination and in mitigating the negative impact of salinity Figure 7. The results of these tests showed that salinity in the growth medium inhibited seed germination to the extent that at 1. At lower concentrations of Bontera TM dilutions of and above significantly enhanced seed germination and seedling growth, while higher concentrations were inhibitory Gill et al. Figure 7. Hirich et al. The study showed that sowing dates affected growth and productivity obviously due to differences in temperature, precipitation and radiation over time Figure 8. Seed and dry matter yields were highest when quinoa was sown in November and early December. Reduced yield during the late sowing dates was explained by delay in germination due to prevailing low temperatures and occurrence of downy mildew during February and March triggered by high air humidity. The length of growing period increased from November to January and decreased from January to March. The longest growing period was when sown on 1st of January and the shortest was when sown on 15th of March. Figure 8. Effect of sowing dates on quinoa yield and growing period length Hirich et al. Poor germination and crop establishment are particular problems likely to be encountered with quinoa especially in saline or other marginal environments. Therefore, understanding of the influence of edaphic and climatic factors on productivity in different locations is important. There is also considerable knowledge gap regarding quinoa pests and diseases, particularly in areas outside its traditional growing regions. Some of the wild relatives such as Chonopodium murale and C. Introduction and scaling-up of novel crops such as quinoa to non-traditional environments also requires the study and establishment of the entire chain and building capacity of the researchers and the farmers in the basics of production and harvesting, storage and processing technologies Rao, In recent years, quinoa is receiving significant attention as a nutritively rich multi-purpose agro-industrial crop that can thrive in extreme soil and climatic conditions. Faced with the challenge of increasing the production of high-quality food to feed the growing population, quinoa offers an excellent alternative to ensure food and nutrition security in marginal environments in the MENA as well as other regions across the globe. In the MENA region, while many countries have recently initiated work on quinoa, Morocco and the UAE have made significant advances toward introducing the crop in the local production systems. As part of this program, quinoa has already been introduced to a dozen sites across the country and each year, the number of quinoa growers' is increasing all over the regions, especially Oujda, Benslimane, Fes, Boulmane, and Marrakech. However, quinoa yields over the years remained unpredictable and very low, averaging between 1. A range of factors such as the choice of cultivars, optimal sowing date and nutrient management were suggested to affect the production. Constraints which still need to be overcome include crop stand establishment, sensitivity to high temperatures and salinity, weed control and saponin removal. Furthermore, there is also a need to design a product marketing strategy and raise awareness among farmers and the government agencies about quinoa's potential as a stress-tolerant alternative crop for marginal environments. Significant progress has been made in identifying salt-tolerant lines combined with high yield potential. As with any other new crop, one of the key factors for successful introduction and establishment of quinoa under the novel climates will be the identification of appropriate planting material. It is therefore important to study the adaptation and yield potential of several quinoa genotypes from different provenances to select the most promising genotypes suitable for the local agro-climatic conditions. Information on these aspects as well as the economic assessment of the profitability of quinoa cultivation is essential, especially when planted under sub-optimal growth conditions with low-quality water in the targeted countries. ICBA's future research on quinoa focuses on developing best practices in relation to the production, management under diverse farming systems and agro-ecological regions, and on utilization and marketing of the produce, besides fostering knowledge transfer, strengthening competencies and exchange of experiences among quinoa researchers within the MENA and Central Asia regions. It is well known that climate change is rapidly degrading the conditions of crop production. Salinization and aridity are forecasted to increase in most parts of the world, especially in the MENA region. As a consequence, new stress-tolerant genotypes of the existing crops or new and alternative crops or species must be identified and used for future food security. Stress-tolerant crops such as quinoa offer major opportunities due to their comparative advantage over the staple food crops in terms of tolerance to harsh growing conditions. The results presented in this paper have indeed shown that quinoa maintains productivity in rather poor soils and under water stress conditions and high salinity. Moreover, quinoa seeds are an exceptionally nutritious food source, owing to their high protein content with all essential amino acids, lack of gluten, high mineral content e. Higher yield do not guarantee quinoa's success in the region and to be successful it must fit in the current cropping patterns, farming systems and prove its worth in rigorous and properly designed on-farm trials in marginal lands affected by salinity and alkalinity and in the areas where the majority of the food crops could not be produced economically. For scaling up and large scale adoption by the farmers in the region, creating opportunities for marketing the produce are also vital. Quinoa being a new crop to the region, more efforts will be needed to create awareness for its incorporation in the social, cultural and dietary habits to increase the market demand besides strengthening the efforts to improve yields combined with nutritional quality, production, harvesting and post-harvesting practices along the value chain. RC was the corresponding author collecting data and results as well as editing results related to North Africa region. He was reviewing the paper and editing the English writing. AH contributed to this paper by designing the figures, commenting the data and compiling all gathered results. He was also revising the formatting according to Journal Author guideline. KT provided results of research undertaken in Central Asia. Butt has been involved with Dr. NR in several experiment on quinoa. SG provided results related to seed treatment in order to improve crop tolerance to salinity. AA provided results related to seed treatment in order to improve crop tolerance to salinity. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Supplementary Figure 1. Quinoa panicle variability in terms of color and panicle volume. Supplementary Figure 2. Trial on combined impacts of water stress and nitrogen application carried out in Agadir, Morocco. Supplementary Figure 3. Sowing date trial carried out in Agadir, Morocco. Supplementary Figure 4. Quinoa harvest within field trial on combined impacts of water stress and nitrogen application carried out in Agadir, Morocco. Supplementary Figure 5. Field trial about responses of seven quinoa accessions to several irrigation levels. Supplementary Figure 6. Genetic and morphological variability of several quinoa accessions. Ashraf, M. Stress-induced changes in wheat grain composition and quality. Bazile, D. State of the Art Report on Quinoa around the World in Google Scholar. Benlhabib, O. Bertero, and C. Dost, M. El Youssfi, L. Effect of domestic treated wastewater use on three varieties of Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa under semi arid conditions. World Acad. Fghire, R. Filali, K. Garcia, M. Evapotranspiration analysis and irrigation requirements of quinoa Chenopodium quinoa in the Bolivian highlands. Water Manage. Geerts, S. Deficit irrigation as an on-farm strategy to maximize crop water productivity in dry areas. Introducing deficit irrigation to stabilize yields of quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Gill, S. Gomaa, E. Effect of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and biofertilizers on quinoa plant Chenopodium quinoa. Hirich, A. Using deficit irrigation with treated wastewater to improve crop water productivity of sweet corn, chickpea, faba bean and quinoa. Moroccan Rev. Deficit irrigation and organic compost improve growth and yield of quinoa and pea. Quinoa in Morocco — effect of sowing dates on development and yield. The combined effect of deficit irrigation by treated wastewater and organic amendment on quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Desal Water Treat 52, — Could quinoa be an alternative crop of wheat in the Mediterranean region: case of Morocco? Using deficit irrigation with treated wastewater in the production of quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Acta Hort. Saline water irrigation of quinoa and chickpea: seedling rate, stomatal conductance and yield responses. ICBA Dubai: International Center for Biosaline Agriculture. Jacobsen, S. The worldwide potential for quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Food Rev. The resistance of Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Lavini, A. Quinoa's potential in the Mediterranean region. Crop Sci. Rao, N. Choukr-Allah Abu Dhabi. Hall, P. Rudebjer, and S. Padulosi Rome: Bioversity International , Quinoa—a promising new crop for the Arabian Peninsula. American-Eurasian J. Razzaghi, F. Water relations and transpiration of Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Repo-Carrasco, R. Shams, A. Response of quinoa to nitrogen fertilizer rates under sandy soil conditions. Int J. Water Resour. Arid Environ. Yazar, A. Saline water irrigation of quinoa Chenopodium quinoa under Mediterranean conditions. Crop Pasture Sci. Plant Sci. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Top bar navigation. About us About us. Sections Sections. About journal About journal. Article types Author guidelines Editor guidelines Publishing fees Submission checklist Contact editorial office. This article is part of the Research Topic Protein crops: Food and feed for the future View all 29 articles. Introduction Quinoa has been recognized as a climate resilient crop of great value and there is an increasing effort to introduce it in different marginal agriculture production systems of the world.

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