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These datasets underpin the analysis presented in the agency's work. Most data may be viewed interactively on screen and downloaded in Excel format. All countries. Topics A-Z. The content in this section is aimed at anyone involved in planning, implementing or making decisions about health and social responses. Best practice. We have developed a systemic approach that brings together the human networks, processes and scientific tools necessary for collecting, analysing and reporting on the many aspects of the European drugs phenomenon. Explore our wide range of publications, videos and infographics on the drugs problem and how Europe is responding to it. All publications. More events. More news. We are your source of drug-related expertise in Europe. We prepare and share independent, scientifically validated knowledge, alerts and recommendations. About the EUDA. Cocaine is, after cannabis, the second most commonly used illicit drug in Europe, although prevalence levels and patterns of use differ considerably between countries. On this page, you can find the latest analysis of the drug situation for cocaine in Europe, including prevalence of use, treatment demand, seizures, price and purity, harms and more. European Drug Report — home. The drug situation in Europe up to Drug supply, production and precursors. Synthetic stimulants. Heroin and other opioids. Other drugs. New psychoactive substances. Injecting drug use in Europe. Drug-related infectious diseases. Drug-induced deaths. Opioid agonist treatment. Harm reduction. Cocaine is, after cannabis, the second most commonly used illicit drug in Europe. Although prevalence levels and patterns of use differ considerably between countries see Prevalence and patterns of cocaine use , the availability of this drug has been increasing for a number of years. Equally, concern has been growing that the health and social costs associated with this drug are rising significantly. The use of cocaine can result in dependent and compulsive patterns of use and is associated with a number of adverse health consequences, which can include agitation, psychosis, tachycardia, hypertension, arrhythmia, chest pain due to acute coronary syndrome and stroke. Chronic cocaine use is associated with an increased risk of coronary artery disease, cardiomyopathy and stroke. Cocaine and synthetic stimulants can induce or precipitate psychotic states, such as stimulant-induced psychosis. Longer and heavier use of stimulants delays recovery and worsens the prognosis for recovery. Among those using the drug, the combined use of cocaine and alcohol is common. The presence of the two substances in the body creates cocaethylene in the liver, which is associated with greater health risks. The management of psychiatric comorbidity among people with drug use problems remains challenging, as integrated treatment and mental health service responses are often lacking. A recent review of mortality among people with regular or problematic cocaine use found that the risk of death by suicide, accidental injury, homicide and AIDS-related mortality were all elevated when compared with non-cocaine using peers. Cocaine is usually available in two forms in Europe. The most common is cocaine powder the salt form and less commonly available is crack cocaine a smokable freebase form. Cocaine is produced from the coca plant, grown in South America. In countries with large container ports known to be utilised for cocaine importation, rising levels of drug-related crime, including the corruption of staff along supply chains, intimidation and violence, have been observed. Elsewhere, there are concerns that competition within the cocaine market, both at the wholesale and retail levels, is now an important driver of drug-related crime, including gang-related violence and homicides in some countries. At the same time, cocaine use, and crack cocaine use in particular, appears to be becoming more common, especially among some marginalised communities. Taken together, this means that the growing availability and use of cocaine in Europe is resulting in greater costs, both in terms of its impact on public health and because of the criminality and violence associated with the cocaine market. In , for the sixth year in a row, EU Member States reported a record amount of cocaine seized, amounting to tonnes. Belgium, Spain and the Netherlands remain the countries reporting the highest volumes of seizures, reflecting their importance as entry points for cocaine trafficked to Europe. The volume of cocaine seized in Antwerp has increased annually since In , Spain reported its largest ever seizure of cocaine 9. The trafficking of illicit drugs is highly dynamic and quick to adapt to geopolitical developments, regional conflicts and changes in commercial trade routes. In this context, developments in Colombia, Brazil and Ecuador are all thought to have contributed to the increase observed in cocaine trafficked to the European Union by organised crime groups see the European Drug Market Report: Cocaine for an in-depth analysis. In addition to the use of commercial containers, a range of other methods are now used, often in combination, to evade detection see Figure 3. Show a text version of the above graphic. As interdiction measures have been scaled up at major known entry points for the drug, it appears that cocaine traffickers are increasingly targeting smaller ports in other EU countries and countries bordering the European Union, which may be more vulnerable to drug trafficking activities. Some northern European countries, including Sweden and Norway, reported record cocaine seizures at seaports in Together, these developments may help explain the fact that despite the large seizures, reported cocaine purity at the retail level remains high by historical standards and its price is stable. It is now well-established that the illicit processing of cocaine products takes place in several EU Member States, with 39 cocaine laboratories reported to have been dismantled in Cocaine processing in Europe usually involves the secondary extraction of cocaine that has been incorporated into other materials e. Some relatively large-scale facilities have been detected recently. For example, a cocaine processing laboratory dismantled in Spain in was reported to have a daily output capacity of kilograms of the drug see Figure 3. For a number of practical and methodological reasons cocaine-related health problems can be challenging to monitor, but there are increasing signals that the high availability of this drug is having a growing negative impact on public health in Europe. Cocaine is the second most frequently reported illicit drug, both by first-time treatment entrants and in the available data on acute drug-toxicity presentations to sentinel hospital emergency departments. European drug checking services, although not nationally representative, reported that cocaine was the most common substance they screened in The available data also suggest that the drug was involved in about a fifth of drug overdose deaths in As cocaine use can aggravate underlying cardiovascular problems, it is likely that the overall contribution this drug makes to mortality in Europe is not sufficiently recognised. Cocaine residues in municipal wastewater also increased in two thirds of cities with data for and This, together with other information, suggests that as cocaine has become increasingly available, so too has its geographical and social distribution. Of particular concern is that cocaine use appears to be becoming more common in more marginalised groups in some countries. Both the smoking and injection of cocaine are associated with greater health problems, and it is therefore worrying that cocaine injection and the use of crack cocaine are reported in a growing number of countries. Stimulants such as cocaine are associated with a higher frequency of injection and have been involved in localised HIV outbreaks among people who inject drugs in 7 European cities over the last decade see Injecting drug use in Europe — the current situation. Treating people with problems associated with their cocaine use is challenging, whether they are clients that are more socially integrated and involved in casual or episodic use of powder cocaine, or more marginalised groups injecting the drug or smoking crack cocaine. Most of the chronic harms related to the use of stimulants such as cocaine are associated with intensive, high-dose or long-term consumption. Acute problems can also affect people who use stimulants experimentally, but they are likely to be less common when the stimulant use is infrequent and low-dose. Although our understanding of what constitutes effective treatment for stimulant problems is growing, it remains relatively limited. The current evidence available is indicative of the use of psychosocial interventions, including cognitive behavioural therapy and contingency management. Currently, there is insufficient evidence to strongly support any pharmacological treatment, although some potentially useful new pharmacotherapies are in development. Treating cocaine problems among more marginalised groups can be particularly challenging, as clients may also be experiencing problems with a range of other drugs, including opioids or alcohol. For injecting cocaine and smoking crack, existing harm reduction responses, to a large extent those originally developed for opioid problems, are likely to be appropriate to reduce route-specific harms. However, further work is needed to develop more comprehensive interventions, and greater investment is needed to ensure services are appropriate to the growing needs observed in this area in some countries. In the European Union, surveys indicate that almost 2. Of the 13 European countries that have conducted surveys since and provided confidence intervals, 5 reported higher estimates than their previous comparable survey and 8 reported a stable trend. This data explorer enables you to view our data on the prevalence of cocaine use by recall period and age range. You can access data by country by clicking on the map or selecting a country from the dropdown menu. Prevalence data presented here are based on general population surveys submitted to the EMCDDA by national focal points. For the latest data and detailed methodological information please see the Statistical Bulletin Prevalence of drug use. Graphics showing the most recent data for a country are based on studies carried out between and Prevalence estimates for the general population: age ranges are and for Germany, Greece, France, Italy and Hungary; and for Denmark, Estonia and Norway; for Malta; for Sweden. Cocaine residues in municipal wastewater increased in 49 out of 72 cities with data for both and , while 13 cities reported no change and 10 cities reported a decrease see Figure 3. Mean daily amounts of benzoylecgonine in milligrams per population. Sampling was carried out over a week between March and May Analysis of 1 used syringes by the ESCAPE network of 12 cities in 11 EU Member States between and found that, overall, a third of syringes contained residues of two or more drug categories, indicating frequent polydrug use or re-use of injecting paraphernalia. The most frequent combination was a mixture of a stimulant and an opioid. Apart from the trends, data are for all treatment entrants with cocaine as the primary drug — or the most recent year available. Trends in first-time entrants are based on 25 countries. Only countries with data for at least 5 of the 6 years are included in the trends analysis. Missing values are interpolated from adjacent years. Because of disruptions to services due to COVID, data for , and should be interpreted with caution. Missing data were imputed with values from the previous year for Spain and France and Germany Price and purity: mean national values — minimum, maximum and interquartile range. Countries vary by indicator. Show source tables. The complete set of source data for the European Drug Report including metadata and methodological notes is available in our data catalogue. A subset of this data, used to generate infographics, charts and similar elements on this page, may be found below. Prevalence of drug use data tables including general population surveys and wastewater analysis all substances. Other data tables including tables specific to cocaine. Homepage Quick links Quick links. GO Results hosted on duckduckgo. Main navigation Data Open related submenu Data. Latest data Prevalence of drug use Drug-induced deaths Infectious diseases Problem drug use Treatment demand Seizures of drugs Price, purity and potency. Drug use and prison Drug law offences Health and social responses Drug checking Hospital emergencies data Syringe residues data Wastewater analysis Data catalogue. Selected topics Alternatives to coercive sanctions Cannabis Cannabis policy Cocaine Darknet markets Drug checking Drug consumption facilities Drug markets Drug-related deaths Drug-related infectious diseases. Recently published Findings from a scoping literature…. Penalties at a glance. Frequently asked questions FAQ : drug…. FAQ: therapeutic use of psychedelic…. Viral hepatitis elimination barometer…. EU Drug Market: New psychoactive…. EU Drug Market: Drivers and facilitators. Statistical Bulletin home. Quick links Search news Subscribe newsletter for recent news Subscribe to news releases. This make take up to a minute. Once the PDF is ready it will appear in this tab. Sorry, the download of the PDF failed. Table of contents Search within the book. Search within the book Operator Any match. Exact term match only. Trafficking methods Infiltration of logistical supply chains Intermodal shipping containers Container switching, code fraud, extraction teams Corruption, intimidation of officials and vessel operators More use of smaller ports Floating GPS-tagged drops Collection from mother ships by small vessels Speedboats, pleasure craft Semi-submersibles narco subs, torpedoes Chemical concealment or masking of shipments More use of general aviation, small airfields. Prevalence and patterns of cocaine use In the European Union, surveys indicate that almost 2. Figure 3. Prevalence of cocaine use in Europe This data explorer enables you to view our data on the prevalence of cocaine use by recall period and age range. The latest European data reveal a time lag of 13 years between first cocaine use, on average at the age of 22, and first treatment for cocaine-related problems, on average at the age of Cocaine users entering treatment. In , EU Member States reported 84 cocaine seizures, amounting to tonnes up from tonnes in ; a record amount for the sixth year in a row. Belgium tonnes , the Netherlands In , EU Member States reported dismantling 39 sites related to cocaine production 34 in In spite of a decrease in seizures of the essential chemical potassium permanganate in kilograms compared with 1 kilograms , it is likely that the large-scale processing of cocaine hydrochloride from imported intermediary products continues to take place in the European Union. For example, in , a cocaine processing laboratory dismantled in Spain was reported to have an estimated daily output capacity of kilograms. In addition, some large seizures of unusual substances containing cocaine that must be chemically extracted have been reported, suggesting that secondary extraction of cocaine occurs at significant levels in Europe. For example, in , chemically concealed cocaine was detected in a shipment of 22 tonnes of sugar in France and in kilograms of coal, part of a larger load of coal shipped to Croatia. After cannabis, cocaine was the second most frequently cited drug in offences related to use or possession. Among the 18 drug checking services across 8 EU countries that reported testing more than 10 samples, cocaine emerged as the substance most commonly detected by 5 services during the first half of and by 4 services during the first half of Over the same period, the purity of cocaine samples analysed by the 18 drug checking services remained high. Cocaine market in Europe. Hidden tables for page Term Colour increase f stable fbaa19 decrease b3d no previous data 7da7d9 ID Term 0 Close 1 Substance 2 Recall period 3 Age 4 Gender 5 Prevalence of drug use 6 Percent 7 Breakdown by substance 8 Prevalence all available countries 9 Trends 11 Males and females 14 Country 15 Years 16 About the data 17 Currently not available for individual countries 20 Notes Prevalence data presented here are based on general population surveys submitted to the EMCDDA by national focal points. Main subject. Target audience. Publication type. European Drug Report main page. On this page.
To Get High or to Get Out? Examining the Link between Addictive Behaviors and Escapism
Buy Heroin Tampere
Atte Oksanen 1 , Bryan L. Drugs are sold on both dark web services and on social media, but research investigating these drug purchases online is still emerging. The aim of this study is to analyze risk factors associated with buying drugs online. Utilizing theories of criminology and addiction research, it was hypothesized that social bonds, low levels of self-control, and poor mental health are associated with buying drugs online. Additionally, it was predicted that purchases of drugs online would mediate the relationship between low self-control and regular drug use. Measures of impulsivity, a sense of mastery, social belonging, psychological distress, excessive behaviors drinking, gambling and internet use were utilized to predict purchasing drugs online. Two percent of the U. Results from multinomial logistic regression, penalized maximum-likelihood logistic regression, and binary mediation regression models indicated that buying drugs online was associated with lower self-control, higher psychological distress, and excessive gambling behavior and excessive Internet use. Having online friends was not a risk factor, but having strong social bonds with offline friends served as a protective factor. Additionally, buying drugs online mediated the relationship between low self-control and regular use of drugs. Results indicate that more focus should be placed on mainstream social media services as sources of drug acquisition as online drug buyers have multiple self-control and mental health problems. Este estudio tiene como objetivo examinar los factores de riesgo vinculados a la compra de drogas online. Cite this article as: Oksanen, A. Illegal drug use and trade are persistent public health and safety issues with serious consequences for individuals and societies. The strategies and contexts for the purchase of drugs evolved greatly in the past decade. Nowadays, the Internet offers easy access to legal and illegal activities taking place on open social media services and encrypted services that use, for example, the Tor network. Online drug dealing first caught public attention with the rise of the Silk Road, an online cryptomarket, which operated in Tor, in Barratt et al. Although the Internet is now a popular context for drug trade, research on this topic is still in its very early stages. It is crucial to discover if buying drugs online is prevalent and to describe risk and protective factors that can potentially be addressed to prevent this emerging problem behavior. Studies have shown that users of cryptomarkets are most commonly males in their 20s. Users of cryptomarkets prioritize them over street markets for quality reasons and personal safety Barratt et al. Cryptomarket buyers have been considered a technological drug subculture that practices online activism and libertarian ideology Maddox et al. Despite much of the focus on cryptomarkets, some indications show that people might use mainstream social media sites, such as Instagram, to buy drugs Marsh, Recently, a Nordic project used qualitative interviews and a digital ethnographic approach to analyze the phenomenon in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. Currently, the literature lacks studies using national datasets and our study aims to fill this gap by investigating buying drugs online from a cross-national perspective. Investigating this phenomenon is important due to the potential of online drug markets for easier access to drugs, which can amplify the various risks that substance use has for young people. Moreover, risk and protective factors for buying drugs online still need to be discovered. We argue that a combination of theories from criminology and addiction research could help researchers to understand the psychological and social risk factors related to buying drugs online. These perspectives include self-control, social bonds, and mental health. Thus, we expect that easy access to social media sources for acquiring drugs could lead to more opportunities to engage in daily use of drugs in individuals with low self-control. Furthermore, we expect that buying drugs online would mediate the relationship between low self-control and regular drug use. Learning takes place in different environments, including friendships of differing quality, frequency, and intensity. Perceived closeness or belonging to friends can have an influence on deviant behaviors. This is particularly the case on the Internet, where it is very easy to get access to harmful and deviant content and form social contacts with like-minded peers Keipi et al. However, strong ties with offline friends have been shown to buffer risky online behavior Kaakinen, Keipi, et al. Mental health refers to psychological, emotional, and social stability and wellbeing of individuals. Addiction research widely recognizes that mental health problems coexist and develop with excessive drug use Orford, One example of these problems is psychological distress i. Issues with mental health are also manifested in other types of addictive behaviors, which could further influence drug use. Drug use has high comorbidity with excessive alcohol consumption Grant et al. All these excessive behaviors are relatively prevalent among young people. In this study, we focused on factors related to buying drugs online, an understudied and emerging problem behavior among young people. Our first aim was to evaluate the prevalence of social media drug acquisition in a population of the United States and Spanish young people. These countries were selected due to their high percentage of drug use among young people ESPAD, ; Savolainen, These countries are otherwise comparable in the usage of Internet among young people Savolainen et al, and provide a good starting point for comparative research on buying drugs online. Our second aim was to investigate how drug acquisition online is associated with self-control, social bonds, and issues with mental health. We predicted that strong social bonds online, low self-control, and mental health issues such as psychological distress and excessive behavior, including excessive drinking, gambling and internet use, would be associated with drug use and buying drugs online. We also expected strong bonds offline to function as a protective factor against drug use and buying drugs online. The participants of the study were year-olds from the U. We recruited the U. Using such panels has become commonplace in social sciences and they are considered a good alternative due to the difficulty of recruiting participants by traditional means. The limitation of such datasets is that they are mostly restricted to people using the Internet Lehdonvirta et al. However, research panels have the benefit of getting access to hard-to-reach populations such as emerging adults in many countries. In our case, the data were collected using similar procedure via Dynata in both countries to guarantee the comparability of data samples. Comparisons of the country datasets to the U. Both samples were part of a larger international comparative project on young people and addictions. A survey designed in English and translated into Spanish included validated measures that have been widely used in comparative research. Additional items were translated by proficient English and Spanish speakers. The accuracy and comparability of items was guaranteed by the back-translation process in December The surveys were pre-tested with university students and mechanical Turk respondents. The surveys were conducted with LimeSurvey software that was run on the Tampere University server. Survey format and layout was identical for all respondents and optimized for both computers and mobile devices. Median response time for the survey was minutes in the U. Participation was anonymous, voluntary, and participants were informed about their right to withdraw from the survey at any time. The participants were informed about the project web page including all the necessary information in case the participants had any concerns regarding the study. The participants gave consent to make data open access and available for research purposes. All the participants that finalized the survey were included in the study and there were no missing data on the items used in the study. Drug use. We then asked to specify the types of drugs used and the frequency of the use. Drug types included 1 cannabis, 2 synthetic cannabinoids, LSD, magic mushrooms, or other comparable hallucinogens, 3 amphetamines, ecstasy, cocaine or other stimulants, 4 opiates, 6 pharmaceutical opioids, 7 gamma, GBL, and other similar drugs, and 8 other pharmaceuticals. The user types were then categorized into regular cannabis users and regular users of other drugs e. Drug purchases online. Next, respondents were asked to identify different online resources for purchasing drugs, including darknet marketplaces and various social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, online dating services, and general discussion forums. Self-control was measured with two different scales. Response options were in 4-point Likert scale giving scores from 1 to 4 per each item. Response options were EIS were no 0 and yes 1 in all questions. However, omega for impulsivity in Spain was only. All regression models are adjusted for age, gender, social media activity and country. Social bonds. We used belonging to friends online and offline as measures of social bonds. We asked respondents three questions about how strongly they felt they belonged to friendship groups, groups of school or work friends, or online communities. The scale was from 1 not at all to 10 very strongly. Question on belonging to online communities was used as a single item for online friends. These questions have been previously validated in studies on deviant online behavior Minkkinen et al. Additionally, we used the nine-item Identity Bubble Reinforcement scale IBRS-9 to measure perceived similarity and identification with other social media users Kaakinen, Sirola, et al. Mental health. We measured psychological distress with the item General Health Questionnaire GHQ , which has been widely used in general population studies Goldberg et al. All of these scales had good inter-item reliability see Table 1. Control factors. We used gender, age, and social media activity as controls. We measured social media activity with a set of 12 questions involving how often respondents used the most popular social media sites. Analyses for this study were run with Stata A multinomial regression analysis was carried out to examine the associations among the covariates, drug use, and buying drugs online. We used an aggregated U. The group of people who had not used drugs was set as the reference category for those who had used drugs but not bought them online and for those who had also bought them online. Table 3 reports additional analyses that were run including only the participants who had experimented with drugs U. These analyses were conducted by using penalized maximum likelihood logistic regression i. Using the Firth method provides more robust findings in cases when either sample size or events are low. Despite this, we aimed to keep the estimation strategy as robust as possible and utilized the Firth method. The analyses were run with the Firthlogit-command Coveney, and age, gender, and social media activity were used as controls. We also report chi-square tests for categorical variables and mean comparison based on Kruskal-Wallis test. OR s are based on penalized maximum likelihood logistic regression models. All regression models are adjusted for age, gender and social media activity. Mediation analysis Figures 1 and 2 was conducted with binary mediation command with a replication bootstrap. We used aggregated US-Spain data here due to the low number of people buying drugs online. Impulsivity and sense of mastery were independent variables, buying drugs online was the mediating variable, and regular drug use was the dependent variable. Mediation analysis included age and gender as controls. Of the respondents, about every fifth Cannabis was clearly the drug most experimented with by respondents with fewer respondents reporting use of other types of drugs. Out of the United States young people, 7. In Spain the numbers were slightly lower with respective figures of 6. In the U. Additionally, respondents were given the opportunity to indicate several services where they purchased drugs online. About half of all the respondents in both the U. Multinomial logistic regression analysis revealed that those buying drugs online reported more self-control issues a lower sense of mastery and higher impulsivity compared with non-users as well as those who had used drugs but not bought them online Table 2. Buying drugs online was associated with psychological distress and excessive forms of drinking, gambling, and Internet use. Additional analyses were conducted in order to check the robustness of the results. Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics comparing those who have bought drugs online and those who have only experimented with drugs. These results further confirm the findings shown in Table 2 , comparing only the participants who experimented with drugs with the participants who reported buying drugs online. Self-control factors were only statistically significant in the U. In Spain, belonging to online friends was associated with buying drugs online. All mental health factors remained significant in the descriptive findings Kruskal-Wallis test and in penalized maximum likelihood logistic regression models. The last part of the analysis investigated buying drugs online as a mediator between the relationship of low self-control and regular drug use see Figures 1 and 2. Statistically significant mediation was found. Figure 1 presents the coefficients when treating impulsivity as an independent variable. The indirect effect was statistically significant p Figure 2 presents the coefficients when treating sense of mastery as an independent variable. The indirect effect was statistically significant p This study analyzed the behavior of buying drugs online among young people in the U. Still, on average every tenth person who had experience using drugs had bought them online. Thus, a low percentage of users purchasing drugs online could represent a more developed drug trade, especially given that current research on online buying indicates that a large share is intended for reselling Demant et al. The most remarkable finding is that mainstream social media services, such as Facebook and Instagram, were used for buying drugs in both countries. The results underline that research on online drugs sales should not only focus on darknet services. From a broader perspective, the results are in line with current social media and cybercrime research underlining that mainstream public Internet platforms give easy access to varying types of illicit and harmful content Keipi et al. In addition to drugs, communities and contents that promote other forms of harmful or addictive behaviors, such as problem gambling, disordered eating, or self-harm, are easily accessible and among the most visited social media sites by youth Keipi et al. In our study, both impulsivity and a low sense of mastery were associated with both drug use and buying drugs online, especially in the U. This result highlights that researchers should continue investigating impulsivity in an online setting. This could partially explain why our results were stronger in the U. Also, results indicated that online drug purchases mediated the relationship between low self-control and regular drug use. These results are an important contribution to the literature, as previous studies described online buyers as technologically savvy users who can regulate themselves Barratt et al. In contrast to these studies, our results indicate that existing self-control problems can lead to spontaneous drug purchases that may later on worsen the potential problems with regular use of drugs. Social norms and group processes within online social networks could be important in many ways. However, in our study we did not find results related to the potential influence of friend groups online. The only exception was the result from Spain indicating that those who bought drugs online expressed higher belonging to online friends. Due to this difference from the U. For example, scholarship on online cliques and bubbles has shown that they vary culturally and topically Keipi et al. We found, however, evidence that strong offline social ties were a protective factor against both drug use and buying drugs online. This finding is in line with previous studies showing that positive offline social ties can buffer potential risks encountered online Kaakinen, Keipi, et al. These findings are also consistent with social control aspects noted in criminology LaFree et al. Those buying drugs online had multiple mental health problems, as they reported psychological distress as well as excessive forms of gambling and Internet use. These findings confirmed previous research results on the associations of drug use in general Edlund et al. Therefore, it would be misleading to portray users of online drug markets as only a technologically savvy and a self-controlled sub-culture. Our results indicate that these youth may have many mental health issues and comorbidity of different addictions. Our analysis was cross-sectional and limited to two countries. Future studies should continue investigating this phenomenon in other countries as well. Although our models included risk and protective factors, and a mediation analysis, on a strong theoretical basis, causal relations need to be confirmed in future longitudinal studies. Additionally, stronger measures of impulsivity should be explored. The strength of the study was that it used two nationwide samples, but additional studies in other cultures and contexts are needed. This is one of the first studies focused on buying drugs online, an emerging problem behavior that might be especially harmful given that it is very difficult to control online behaviors. Online drug buyers have multiple self-control and mental health problems, and drug availability online might worsen their situations. Impulsive decisions are especially easy to make on social media. In light of this, more focus should be placed on youth behavior on mainstream social media services. Implications for policy and practice underline the need to work with youth on their social media use, since young people spend a considerable amount of time online. Social media platforms are linked to a wide variety of deviant behavior Nasaescu et al. The wide availability of illicit drugs is a larger problem area that needs to be tackled through legal enforcement efforts, especially online. Most importantly, the results suggest that there is a need to provide therapeutic interventions and support for those youth buying drugs online. As strong offline social ties could help protect from drug-related risks and harms, it is necessary to promote face-to-face interactions among young people. Comprehensive school-based interventions against substance use should include components related to buying drugs online, increasing its protective factors and decreasing risks. Social media and access to drugs online: A nationwide study in the United states and Spain among adolescents and young adults. Akers, R. Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. Northeastern University Press. The empirical status of social learning theory of crime and deviance: The past, present, and future. Cullen, J. Blevins Eds. Transaction Publishers. Bakken, S. International Journal of Drug Policy, Barratt, M. Addiction, 5 , International Journal of Drug Policy, 35 , Baumeister, R. Self-regulation failure: An overview. Psychological Inquiry, 7 1 , The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 3 , Bendayan, R. Psicothema, 31 2 , Bush, K. Archives of Internal Medicine, 16 , Coveney, J. Longitudinal effects of parenting mediated by deviant peers on violent and non-violent antisocial behaviour and substance use in adolescence. Demant, J. 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Youth workers warn of rise in drugs purchases through social media. Martin, J. Drugs on the dark net: How cryptomarkets are transforming the global trade in illicit drugs. Palgrave Macmillan. Polydrug use trajectories and differences in impulsivity among adolescents. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 18 3 , Meerkerk, G. Minkkinen, J. Moyle, L. International Journal of Drug Policy, 63 , Munksgaard, R. Mixing politics and crime — The prevalence and decline of political discourse on the cryptomarket. Nasaescu, E. Longitudinal patterns of antisocial behaviors in early adolescence: A latent class and latent transition analysis. Oksanen, A. Harm Reduction Journal, 15 Proanorexia communities on social media. Pediatrics, 1 , e Glamorizing rampage online: School shooting fan communities on YouTube. Technology in Society, 39 , Pearlin, L. The structure of coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19 1 , Peters, E. 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Introduction Illegal drug use and trade are persistent public health and safety issues with serious consequences for individuals and societies. Mental Health Mental health refers to psychological, emotional, and social stability and wellbeing of individuals. This Study In this study, we focused on factors related to buying drugs online, an understudied and emerging problem behavior among young people. Method Participants The participants of the study were year-olds from the U. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics. Conflict of Interest The authors of this article declare no conflict of interest. References Akers, R. Orford, J. Excessive appetites: A psychological view of addictions. Introduction Method Results Discussion. Go top. PlumX Metrics. Your request has been saved Notify me when a new issue is online I have read and accept the information about Privacy. For more information, see our cookies policy Aceptar. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics Note. Procedure Both samples were part of a larger international comparative project on young people and addictions. Instruments Drug use. Data Analysis Analyses for this study were run with Stata Results Of the respondents, about every fifth The indirect effect was statistically significant p Discussion This study analyzed the behavior of buying drugs online among young people in the U.
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