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As the short film industry is thriving, film festivals are putting more and more emphasis on how to accompany short film makers on their journey towards first features. Les Arcs' Talent Village, which just wrapped its tenth edition, is one of such initiatives. Curated by the Industry Village team, eight participants showcased their upcoming projects, exploring themes ranging from post-apocalyptic scenarios to coming-of-age narratives. For this writer, the most intriguing part of the three-day event was the workshop focusing on the collaboration between filmmakers and composers. In the film industry, directors or producers usually choose composers for their projects. In the Talent Village, the tables are turned, with composers selecting the directors. So, in addition to the presented feature film projects, four composers each of whom worked on two projects , performed their scores. One of the most memorable projects comes from Lithuania. A little over a decade ago, he faced homelessness. The director is open about his year struggle with heroin addiction and often draws inspiration from his past. His short Last Time Clermont-Ferrand follows a pregnant couple trying to find money for the addiction treatment. On-set photos showcased at the festival depicted industrial landscapes and gigantic Soviet bloc houses, hinting at a similar setting as we have seen in his shorts. Accompanied by a captivating soundtrack by Juliette Sedes which blends Lithuanian folk songs with techno, the presentation marked a promising beginning for a bold autobiographical exploration of substance abuse. Zimcea also worked with Marlene Emilie Lyngstad on Cute , a feature that follows the life cycle of a mass-produced stuffed animal, and which ended up winning the Talent Village Award. Composer Jac van Exter chose synth sounds and 70s tunes to enhance the story. In collaboration with the composer Niki Demiller, classical music with a hint of grotesque was chosen to accompany the narrative of the project which received a special mention. Isabella Margara, a medical doctor turned filmmaker, presented the environmental post-apocalyptic western Black Water. The director intends to explore the question of how to live a life when life has become unbearable. Demiller crafted a soundtrack with traditional Balkan music, enhancing the film's melancholic atmosphere. While the exact direction of the work in progress is still unclear, Margara's previous work, the gloomy fairy-tale-like short Nothing Holier than a Dolphin , winner of the international Audience Award at this year's Clermont-Ferrand, suggests a surreal addition to the post-apocalyptic genre. Several of the selected eight projects addressed similar topics, whether the ideas were based on personal stories or fantasy scenarios. And while the stage and potential of the projects varied, several of presented projects have promising distribution prospects. There is certainly room to improve diversity, particularly by including animation and documentary directors in the line-up. Nevertheless, Les Arcs' Talent Village has had another fruitful year, affirming the talent and unique perspectives that thrive in the short film industry. Les Arcs International Competition: 'Animal'.

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Federal government websites often end in. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. NCBI Bookshelf. Attempts to understand the nature of illicit drug abuse and addiction can be traced back for centuries, however, the search has always been limited by the scientific theories and social attitudes available or dominant at any one time. Benjamin Rush, a founder of the first medical school in the United States and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was one of the pioneers of U. However, he had few scientific resources available to attack the problem. The intricacies of cellular response to a drug could not be understood until tools were developed to measure the response and to integrate this knowledge with complex cellular biochemistry—a technology that has been developed only in the past decade. One can compare this situation with that of pneumonia. A myriad of treatments and partially effective remedies were used until the discovery of penicillin, when the old treatments became a part of medical history. It is now possible, however, to be optimistic that the tools needed to resolve the addiction problem are at hand. The vicissitudes of this research illustrate changing popular and professional attitudes toward illicit drugs and drug users and also provide insights into the relationship between scientific findings and drug policy. Most of the modern problems, as well as the benefits, resulting from drug use are the outcome of scientific and technological progress. Excluding distilled spirits, the first addictive ingredient isolated from a natural product was morphine, which was extracted from crude opium by F. Serturner, a German pharmacist, in Increasingly widespread use of morphine, which constitutes roughly 10 percent of crude opium, revolutionized pain control. One of the first careful studies of morphine addiction was made in by Levinstein, who identified key elements in opiate addiction that would interest researchers: the fixation on the drug that made it the highest priority even when the user's life situation was deteriorating, and the curious phenomenon of withdrawal that could be reversed quickly by giving more opiate Levinstein, Around the turn of the century, several new medical research issues attracted investigators: communicable diseases, bacteria, and viruses; the immune system, with its antibodies and antigens; autointoxication, or the body poisoning itself; the endocrine glands and their production of hormones; and the rapidly developing fields of biochemistry and pharmacology. A number of researchers in the United States and abroad attempted to apply those contemporary approaches to the study of illicit drug abuse, addiction specifically, opiate addiction , and its treatment. A particularly popular line of research related to discoveries about the immune system and concerned the possible creation in the user's body of either antibodies or a toxin to morphine. This research attempted to parallel the success of antitoxins to diphtheria and tetanus. Gioffredi reported in that serum from addicted dogs could be injected into kittens, who were then protected against large doses of morphine Gioffredi, In , Valenti stated that he had extracted serum from dogs undergoing the abstinence reaction and was able to produce similar effects by injecting the serum into normal animals—giving support for the hypothesis that a toxin produced abstinence effects Valenti, Application of the concept of ''autointoxication' to research on narcotic dependence emerged from the theories of Elie Metchnikoff, who won a Nobel Prize in medicine in for his work on toxins thought to be the product of fermentation in the large intestine Metchnikoff, Other theories applied to drug addiction in the early s included the blockage of endocrine gland passages Sollier, , changes in cell protoplasm Cloetta, , degenerative changes in brain cells Wilcox, , or changes in cell permeability Fauser and Ottenstein, One other approach, exemplified by the New York physician Dr. Ernest S. Bishop, led to the claim that as long as the toxin or antibodies were balanced by a dose of morphine, the person would feel and function normally-a theory similar to that proposed for methadone treatment today Bishop, This early and active stage of research was characterized by optimism for medical research and the success of medical treatment. Estimates of cure ranged as high as percent Musto, Hope was great that the key to addiction had been found and that eventually a treatment as effective as that against diphtheria would be developed. Soon, however, this situation changed dramatically. Around the time of World War I, extensive drug use in the United States—a combination of morphine, heroin, opium, and cocaine—created a growing fear of drug abuse. The association of opium with Chinese immigrants, cocaine with African Americans, and morphine addiction with careless physicians prompted more and more restrictive legislation and an antagonism to easy access to those drugs. A six-year federal effort to control the distribution of opiates and cocaine led to the Harrison Anti-Narcotics Act of Regulations associated with the Harrison Act and promulgated by the U. Treasury Department in indicated that the maintenance of nonmedical addicts on narcotics to avoid withdrawal would not be considered legitimate medical practice. The federal government then began to use the act to prosecute doctors who issued prescriptions for that purpose. In , the Supreme Court ratified the federal government's interpretation of the laws. The position against maintenance was controversial, however, not only because it seemed to represent an intrusion into medical practice, but also because the Gioffredi and Valenti hypotheses—that opiate use causes permanent physiological changes through creation of antibodies or a toxin—seemed to give support to those who considered addiction a medical disease. Pellini, the Assistant City Chemist of New York, actively examined the Gioffredi and Valenti claims and, in the early s, published a refutation of their hypotheses Pellini and Greenfield, , The general conclusion drawn from this debate over antibodies and toxins was that there was no organic basis for addiction and withdrawal and that these phenomena were 'functional' or 'psychological. Drug abuse research in the s seems to have been at a relatively low level of activity. The Public Health Service PHS produced some estimates of the number of addicts and general statements on the nature and treatment of drug users. Perhaps the chief scientific contribution of that decade was the demonstration of morphine dependence in monkeys. In , the institute created the Bureau of Social Hygiene to study social problems generally and criminology in particular, and by the time the bureau was disbanded in , 32 papers and books on addiction had been published with its support Eddy, The vast majority described studies at Iowa State University of the effect of morphine on the gastrointestinal system and its fate in the body, as well as clinical efforts in Philadelphia to cure addicts and monitor morphine in the bodies of the patients. The foundation also supported the compendium The Opium Problem, a large anthology of information that is still in use Terry and Pellens, At the close of the s, the Bureau of Social Hygiene decided to transfer its support of research to the National Research Council NRC , where it was hoped greater central direction could be achieved. Its members included medical school researchers and key government scientists and administrators, including the head of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, H. Their first task was to decide the direction of research, and their reasoning is quite instructive as to the state of research around The committee considered that further sociological studies were unlikely to help the drug situation. Given its resources, the committee felt that one drug should be targeted. Cocaine was considered but was dropped because it was no longer much of an abuse problem. Codeine appeared to be less addictive, thus posing less danger, so morphine was chosen as the target of this new research effort. The goal of studying morphine was to find substitutes that were not habit forming. Scientists were well aware that they worked in a framework of law and policy that precluded maintenance and in an atmosphere of extreme antagonism to narcotic drugs. In addition to seeking safe substitutes, the NRC committee approved three more tasks: 1 synopses of the literature on morphine and other addictive drugs were to be prepared; 2 based on the literature search, rules and regulations governing the legitimate use of morphine and other habit-forming drugs were to be established; and 3 a determination of where gaps existed in biological knowledge was to be made. The committee proceeded to attack the problem by working in three Settings—chemical laboratories that would create possible substitutes, a pharmacology lab where these would be tested, and a clinical setting in which human subjects could be studied. New substances for trial were created first at Yale and then at Dr. Small's laboratory at the University of Virginia. The substances were then sent to a new pharmacology unit at the University of Michigan headed by Dr. Nathan Eddy, where they were tested on laboratory animals. Clinical facilities were meager until the 'narcotic farms' opened in Lexington, Kentucky, in and Ft. Worth, Texas, in These institutions, dubbed farms by the sponsor of the legislation that established them, Representative Stephen G. Porter of Pennsylvania, were in fact special prisons for drug addicts, complete with cells and bars. They were officially under the control of the Treasury Department, which was charged with the enforcement of narcotic laws but were staffed by PHS officers. It was not until the late s that the facility at Lexington became a true PHS hospital Musto, Eventually the Addiction Research Center, under the leadership of C. Himmelsbach, was established at Lexington to determine the addictive liability of various compounds. Pharmacological research at the Lexington facility provided major contributions to the understanding of opiate and alcohol dependence and withdrawal, and included research on the quantification of opiate dependence as a physical or physiological phenomenon and on the effect of methadone on opiate withdrawal. When it became apparent that the Rockefeller funding would not be continued, the chemical and pharmacological work was transferred to the PHS. At that time—in —a non-habit-forming analgesic to replace morphine had not been found. However, many drugs had been tested, and experts were hopeful that compounds with a more salutary balance of effects, although still habit forming, might be developed. Certainly, many of the pitfalls of drug testing had been recognized. Judged by today's sophisticated research, the methods were simple. Addiction liability was typically tested by substituting the test drug for a regular dose of morphine in a morphine-dependent person and observing the results. The relation of molecular composition to effect was considered but at a level that could not take into account the actual shape of the molecule or the site on which it acted. These early studies illustrate the limitations of knowledge at the molecular level, where pain relief and dependence actually occurs. Prominent among the reasons for this renewed activity was the appearance of methadone from German laboratories. Researchers' considerable interest in methadone's possibilities, together with other unfunded ideas for scientific studies in the field, prompted the group to consider asking pharmaceutical manufacturers for contributions to a research fund that the committee would administer. This episode reveals the paucity of funding sources and the extremely modest amounts with which basic and practical research on pain relief was conducted immediately after World War II. There were other supports for research in this area. University science departments contributed some of their own funds to these studies. Furthermore, pharmaceutical companies themselves conducted research on analgesics, although their practice of sending new drugs for testing under the committee's auspices suggests that their programs in this area were not comprehensive. Research sponsored by the committee was varied and included studies of methadone as well as the opiate antagonists nalorphine, naloxone, and naltrexone. Additionally, the committee advised the Federal Bureau of Narcotics and the Food and Drug Administration on the potential abuse liability of marketable drugs. By , CPDD had incorporated as an independent organization; it continued to grow as a locus of scientific interchange, later changing its name to the College of Problems of Drug Dependence. The era from World War I through had seen a loss of faith in the possibility of successfully treating narcotics addicts. Alexander Lambert, a leading advocate of addiction treatment since , exemplified this trend with his abandonment in of the 'cure' he had advocated for 11 years. Federal drug policy became concentrated on narcotics control through law enforcement, and prevention and treatment were deemphasized. However, this trend began to decline with time. During the s, the entrenched commitment to law enforcement confronted an unprecedented rise in the nature and extent of illicit drug use. The transformation, especially in marijuana use, was associated with social and political turmoil, including the deep fissures caused by the Vietnam War, the civil rights movement, and profound demographic changes as the 'baby boom' generation approached maturity. The first of several steps toward abandonment of the punitive-deterrent philosophy was the report of the President's Commission on Narcotics and Drug Abuse, which was an outgrowth of the White House Conference on Drug Abuse. The report advocated adoption of approaches more in keeping with the view of illicit drug abuse as a disease and with theories of social deviance control through medical means. This sort of thinking enjoyed widespread acceptance at that time and was the philosophy behind the establishment of federally funded community mental health centers which began the same year. This act attempted to deal with the growing wave of drug use in the context of new attitudes and approaches by making penalties, especially for marijuana possession, less severe and more flexible and by creating categories for drugs of varying dangerousness that would allow shifts between classes to be achieved administratively rather than requiring a new statute. One of the most important initiatives of the new law was the establishment of the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, which would report over two years on the whole range of issues linked to drug use. Although dealing in the drug would be still prohibited under this approach, users would no longer be subject to criminal punishment. This proposal was disavowed by President Nixon but influenced a number of state laws in the s. Furthermore, the report urged substantial studies on marijuana, commissioned many itself, and published them in two large volumes of technical papers. The commission's second report, Drug Use in America: Problem in Perspective NCMDA, , continued the strong recommendation both for government-sponsored research and for continuation of national surveys on drug use that the commission had begun. The technical papers of the second report include studies on patterns and consequences of drug use, social responses to drug use, the legal system and drug control, and treatment and rehabilitation. With the exception of studies on alcoholism, foundation support for drug abuse research did not emerge until the s and s, when changing use patterns made drug abuse a subject of national concern. In , the Ford Foundation initiated the Drug Abuse Survey Project to pinpoint more precisely what should be done to combat drug abuse. Its final report, Dealing with Drug Abuse Wald, , analyzed in detail the great gaps in basic knowledge of drug actions within the body, psychological factors involved in deciding to use drugs, and the role of drugs in contemporary American society; it also made a strong appeal for more research. The report's practical outcome was creation of the Drug Abuse Council DAC , which funded studies on illicit drug abuse from until General foundation support for drug abuse research increased slightly in the s, rising in the late s as the crack epidemic crystallized national alarm over the drug abuse problem Renz, Its growth was considerable and included funding not only for research but also for training and services. As successor to the PHS Division of Mental Hygiene, concerns with alcohol and narcotics naturally fell under its mantle. SAODAP provided the first federal funding of drug abuse treatment and was part of an ambitious response to public fears of widespread drug experimentation among youth, the possibility that drug-addicted Vietnam veterans would pose a danger to public order, and the general perception of a link between drug abuse and crime. SAODAP had been operating on a lame duck basis since the presidential election and the resignation of its director in June The creation of NIDA was itself an indication that the drug abuse problem was not expected to go away soon and that sustained research into the treatment, prevention, and biology of drug abuse was a national necessity. Over the years, however, NIDA's research budget has undergone unsettling perturbations as seen in changes of its extramural grant funding Table B. The 29 percent drop in was the most severe to date in NIDA's history. Drug abuse research is supported when the nation is in a state of alarm over a new drug or an escalation in drug use, but it is quickly reduced with changes in perception of drug use or when other issues become a priority. Thus, funding levels may shift significantly and may detrimentally affect research programs that rely on ongoing support both to maintain a specific research project and to keep trained experts employed in the field. It is to NIDA's credit, however, and to the credit of drug abuse researchers that even with unstable funding levels, they have sponsored and conducted an extraordinary range of research that has resulted in many of the major accomplishments in the field discussed throughout this report. Turn recording back on. Help Accessibility Careers. Search term. David F. Musto, M. The Narcotic Drug Problem. New York: Macmillan. Cloetta M. Archives of Experimental Pathology and Pharmacology Eddy NB, editor. Fauser A, Ottenstein B. Chemisches und physikalisch-chemisches aum problem der 'Suchten' und 'Entziehungserscheinungen,' insbesonders des morphinismus und cocainisums. Ztsch Neurologic Psychiatry Washington, DC: U. Government Printing Office. Gioffredi C. Archives Italiennes de Biologie Levinstein E. Translation by Charles Harrer. London: Smith, Elder, and Co. A historical account. Drug and Alcohol Dependence Metchnikoff E. Paris: Masson and Cia. Musto DF. New York: Oxford University Press. Marihuana: A Signal of Misunderstanding. Drug Use in America: Problem in Perspective. NIH Data Book NIH Publication No. Pellini E, Greenfield AD. Narcotic drug addiction: I. The formation of protective substances against morphine. Archives of Internal Medicine Narcotic drug addiction: II. The presence of toxic substances in the serum in morphine addiction. Archives of International Medicine Renz L. New York: The Foundation Center. Sollier P. Terry CD, Pellens M. The Opium Problem. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith. Valenti A. Wald PM. New York: Praeger. Wilcox WH. Norman Kerr memorial lecture on drug addiction. British Medical Journal Dec. Copyright by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. In this Page. Other titles in this collection. Related information. Recent Activity. Clear Turn Off Turn On. Follow NCBI.

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