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Hasidic leaders considered all such schools to be dangerously assimilatory and responded by embarking on ambitious pedagogical projects of their own. Notwithstanding widespread wartime destruction, formidable secularist Jewish competition, and a worldwide economic depression, they constructed enormous networks of primary schools heders , Bais Yaakov schools for girls and women, and yeshivas—several of which would rank among the most prestigious in the world. Their institutionalization of Torah education, which often occurred in alliance with non-Hasidic traditionalists, was buttressed by zealous sermons, international philanthropical networks, and steady influxes of pious Jewish refugees from the Soviet Union, Austria, and Germany. Polish Hasidism was forever transformed. Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. 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Rebuilding the Heder Rebuilding the Heder. Modernizing Hasidism Modernizing Hasidism. Summary Summary. Conclusion: Rebuilding Again. Expand End Matter. Bibliography of Primary Sources. Glenn Dynner Glenn Dynner. Oxford Academic. Google Scholar. Annotate Cite Icon Cite. Permissions Icon Permissions. Select Format Select format. Keywords: Hasidism , pedagogy , yeshiva , heder , Polonization , Soviet Union. Collection: Oxford Scholarship Online. The Light of Learning. Glenn Dynner, Oxford University Press. DOI: You do not currently have access to this chapter. Sign in Get help with access. Institutional access Sign in through your institution Sign in through your institution. Get help with access Institutional access Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. 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This article analyzes the relationship between Holocaust trauma and firsthand poetic testimonies through the lens of literary acoustics. The article compares these poetical works to involuntary flashbacks composed of haunting sounds that recall trauma and violence and applies the concept of thantosonics to these auditory memories. In particular, the author notes the importance of trains as not only an auditory motif, but also as the metrical underpinning of the verses, and as a point of juxtaposition against sounds of innocence in the Holocaust soundscape. Furthermore, the article also explores the imagery of folk dance as a kind of danse macabre , as well as instances of involuntary sonic identification with the perpetrators. These auditory descriptions of persecution and tragedy are of particular importance to this article, as they may have been composed when the authors were actually hearing these sounds in real life; however, the possible synchronization between poetic verbalization and direct perception requires a more detailed theoretical frame. Following R. In the Lager soundscape, they might include aggressive shouts, sirens, whistles, gongs, whip cracks, gunshots, dogs barking, as well as the whistle and the rumble of a train. When distressing sounds are verbally transposed, researchers possess the criteria to assess their typology. Additionally, I analyze the metaphor of mortal dance which involves both audio and visual characteristics. I have selected survivor poems that describe these sounds not only as externally perceived and recollected, but as phenomena that haunt the victimized speakers and are connected with traumatic repetition compulsion. This traumatic repetition is why, as will be shown below, the evocation of sounds in these pieces is often veiled, indirect, or even dislocated. Thus, the poets do not always consciously recollect these auditory memories. These acoustic stimuli could trigger traumatic repetitions of their own painful experiences. Both layers could overlap, creating a highly distressing experience that is both overwhelming and haunting for the author. The selected examples of Holocaust verse exemplify this complexity. Martin Daughtry first coined the term by combining the name of the Greek god of death, Thanatos, with descriptions of acoustic phenomenon. He also distinguished four concentric zones of wartime audition. According to this theoretical model, the closer the participants of war are to the center of an acoustic territory, the more vulnerable they are to the trauma of war. For instance, a powerful explosion would be the paradigm of a thanatosonic phenomenon. An important question arises from this model: is this concept applicable to temporally dispersed and not necessarily excessively loud though potentially traumatizing Holocaust sounds—both those perceived by the inmates and recalled in camp poetry? Of course, this question is not meant to conflate the experiences of the Holocaust with wartime trauma or the Second World War. Though the Holocaust was perpetrated under the cover of war, the soundscape that characterized the genocide against the Jews was unique and distinct. Holocaust victims experienced prolonged—punctuated with instances of the ungraspable—liminal moments of catastrophe intertwined with the sudden realization of their survival, followed by excruciating flashbacks. As part of such an experience, distressing sounds return to a vulnerable psyche through the retraumatizing mechanism of repetition compulsion. Pondering these sounds while writing may take the survivor back to traumatic moments, or contrarily the endeavor of articulating past suffering may help to alleviate trauma. Not all authors, however, are equally sensitive to audial stimuli, and, consequently, not all wove sound descriptions into their poetry. Moreover, a substantial fraction of the verse that victims of the Nazi regime created was irreversibly lost. Yet a few striking examples of sonic haunting appear in poems written in Polish at the time of the Second World War, especially in poetry originating from inside the camp. Both poets were raised Jewish, but nonetheless, both used Polish in their everyday communication and writing. The fact that he was then still in danger both as a Jew in hiding and a soldier explains his intense echoic flashbacks in his partisan pieces. In this context, the entanglement of sound-related phobia, hyperacusis, and echoing auditory haunting becomes understandable. Though his poetry is less well-known, it typifies his initial efforts to express the psychological damage he endured in the camps. Although his whole family Wygodzki, his wife, and their little daughter tried to overdose on phenobarbital in the cattle cars, Wygodzki survived the attempted suicide. If we apply a psychoanalytical approach to examine his experiences, this inability to remember ruptured his psyche, creating a liminal space of subconscious memories. His poems, written as early as in , are permeated with his recent Holocaust experiences, recalling images of his daughter and wife. Wygodzki evokes sonic memories indirectly, for a specific familiar rhythm flows through his writings. She was very small like slender stripling— small birch, small fir, young apple. A little girl in green with songbird singing near field and chapel. And when she heard the scream of locomotive, most likely it was now far. This little girl in a musical motif with a coral bar. Nor a thing about that smoking chimney cloud children burning and burning, when she arrived a young girl little girl bound for Auschwitz turning. Neither about me, neither about mother when rattle of wheels brought her this young girl small girl, wheeled through flaming cover, who is my daughter. The train rhythm—both as the directly recalled motif, additionally reinforced by the sound of the whistle, and the metrical underpinning of the verses—holds a dual meaning that balances between a symbol of the vanished serene childhood and the emerging sonic icon of the Shoah connected with private loss. The wife, paradoxically, appears to be already dead, yet, as she confesses, is still physically suffering in the camp. Do not recite me poems, be quiet rather, Rather be silent and let me rest. I still see you, I am still breathing, Wheels are rolling. A multitude of sonic icons characteristic of the soundscape of the Nazi camps appear in the poetry of the Karmel sisters. For example, in , Ilona addressed her open letter to him, which was published in Although this allegedly unengaged account is reported smoothly and rhythmically expressed by a third-person speaker, it exposes the most drastic episodes from inside the wagons. Yet again the rumble of train wheels serves, paradoxically, a dual role: as a sonic icon of both lost carefree adolescence and the Holocaust. Within it, the poet would function as an overpowered medium. In the case of people persecuted by the Nazi regime, the relative safety and silence of any shelter could instantaneously turn into a wartime soundscape full of loud screams and shooting. Hyperacusis, the reduced tolerance to sound already addressed in the context of camp prisoners, turns out to be a distinguishing feature for the constantly endangered fugitives. And the heart in which I silence the marks of the painful conspiracy. From the occupant and the neighbour, even from my own comrade. Although the above-quoted lines address the internal sonic leakages that could not have been heard by any bystanders, the self-destructive fright seems to be overwhelming and detrimental. In the lines written in relative safety, when he became a partisan soldier, Jewish fellow prisoners rushing around in panic and trying to avoid being killed are periphrastically portrayed as participating in the delirious mortal dance, which functions as a peculiar reimagining of the danse macabre , 54 transforming horrifying noises into musical sounds. Yet this implicit soundscape of genocide, which one can easily imagine as full of screams and gunshots, is muffled and replaced by a predominately visual sequence resembling a silent movie. Moreover, when we think about war sounds as omnipresent and invasive elements, muffling can also be interpreted as a repression of the most traumatizing elements that are nonetheless retrievable because they return as haunting flashbacks. Also, the fact that Lec uses the present tense to describe the past should be noted. It vividly signals the literal return of the catastrophic moment. Both the attempt to muffle those flashbacks and the parallel impromptu aestheticization of them can be interpreted as an attempt to overcome the compulsive repetition of memory in order to liberate oneself from the sonic haunting. Alternatively, thanks to the rather faint and veiled recollections of the past, poetry has the potential to temper the effect of these sonic hauntings. Man became man! Without wishing to boast! Freedom and life! From the camps to the camps. Hundreds of railroad loading platforms, the consignments—like in Birkenau, nothing has changed till now! Characterizing the actions described in this poem as mimicry or mockery, while not inappropriate, 62 cannot fully explain the dynamics at play. As Borowski renders clear through his work, unsettling audial stimuli besiege the subject both internally and externally. The above-mentioned poem is also notable as the expected roles are swapped here. A liberated survivor no longer needs to regulate the sounds they make in public. If these sounds are to be considered compulsive sonic leakages from a traumatized psyche, their powerful impact could be dangerous to the survivor. Though these leakages do come forth, they fail to bring any relief to the screamer. Youths symbolize the innocent, who will endure the long-term, indirect effects of the Holocaust for years to come. One common assertion often repeated in sound studies and aural or auditory history is the evanescent nature of acoustic phenomena. Additionally, overtly subjective or artistically polished texts may be easily called into question even though as early as in the s the founder of sound studies, R. Murray Schafer, claimed that literature can serve as an example of earwitness testimony and that hallucinations could be regarded as a part of soundscape. In this context, analyzing the Holocaust-related sonically haunted poetry that appears in this article is not without numerous pitfalls. First, the authors attempt to preserve sounds in spite of their transient character. Second, they mainly recall unobjectively available ingredients of the wartime soundscape and uncover internal, uncontrolled echoes of the original stimuli that were presumably stored in the subconscious. The origin of those peculiar, haunting noises could have been unclear to the besieged survivor, as they stemmed from traumatic moments that had suspended conscious reactions and disrupted the mechanisms of remembering. Yet when we read those firsthand poetic testimonies, we encounter striking personal accounts connected with the sounds of traumatic moments, for trauma is recognizable only through its symptoms, for example, sonic haunting. She holds a degree in cultural studies and Polish language and literature studies. Her fields of interest cover the history of Polish literature of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, intermediality, sound studies, and memory studies. The National Science Centre, Poland financed and contributed to this project. Roger Kurtz, Introduction to Trauma and Literature , ed. Peter Logan, Music and Politics 1, no. Karin Bijsterveld Bielefeld, Germany: Transcript, : 11— Adam Zych, ed. Mark M. Julian Tuwim, Lokomotywa: The Locomotive. La Locomotive. Locomotive , trans. In the dynamic second half of the poem, which describes the train quickly moving, the rhythm becomes denser and most verses consist of four dactyls. Zych, The Auschwitz Poems , Below, the original Polish version is quoted in its full length:. The original Polish version unfolds as follows:. Arie A. Henryka i Ilona Karmel, The translated excerpt in the original text reads as follows:. W archiwum Aleksandra Kulisiewicza , ed. The mortal dance is also related to the coerced performance of music and dances to accompany camp executions. Music was also meant to mask the sounds of the genocide. Interestingly, temporary hearing loss is a common physical injury connected to excessive noise in trauma zones. See Daughtry, Listening to War , William G. Wyzwolili mnie, ubrali w mundur SS. Bruce R. Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Sign In or Create an Account. Sign in through your institution. Advanced Search. Search Menu. Article Navigation. Close mobile search navigation Article Navigation. Volume Article Contents Abstract. Traumatic sonic leakages. Sonic identification with perpetrators. Methodological conclusions. Funding statement. Journal Article. Email: dobrawa. Oxford Academic. Google Scholar. Revision received:. Editorial decision:. Corrected and typeset:. Select Format Select format. Permissions Icon Permissions. Abstract This article analyzes the relationship between Holocaust trauma and firsthand poetic testimonies through the lens of literary acoustics. Before burning? And the train kept rushing, hours changed into days—. And suddenly it screeched, stopped—and…. Hundreds of railroad loading platforms,. Translated by Richard J. Daughtry, Listening to War , — Lec, Notatnik polowy , Translated by Adam Zych. Sterne, Audible Past. Schafer, The Tuning of the World , 8—9, Daughtry, Listening to War , For commercial re-use, please contact journals. Download all slides. Views More metrics information. Total Views Email alerts Article activity alert. Advance article alerts. New issue alert. Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic. Citing articles via Google Scholar. Obituary: Alon Confino — Dina Porat. Jeffrey S. Kopstein, Jelena Subotic and Susan Welch. More from Oxford Academic. Arts and Humanities. 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