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Even though readily available -if you know where to look - drugs in the broadest sense are a hot topic in Peru which can easily and quickly get you in lots of trouble and danger. Therefore, before introducing you to the local situation and laws, we recommend best stay away from any illicit substances and people producing, selling, and using them. Since ancient times, the cultivation of coca leaves the raw material required to make cocaine has a cultural and social significance for the indigenous people of Peru. To this day, the stimulant effects of the coca leaf are used for medical purposes and in traditional religious ceremonies. For these purposes only, the cultivation and usage of coca leaves are legal in Peru. So, chewing coca leaves is legal. The same applies to drinking Mate de coca coca tea which is sold on every market and in every supermarket. This tea made from coca leaves can be considered a staple, especially in the Peruvian Andes and is often recommended to travelers to prevent and relieve the symptoms of Altitude Sickness. Legal and available in Peru are also coca flour, coca energy drinks, coca energy bars, coca sweats and chewing gums, which all only use the leaves of the coca plant. However, please be aware that these in Peru legal products may violate the laws of other countries and be prohibited. You should also know that the consumption may result in a positive drug test for cocaine. On the other hand, you should be aware that cocaine is far away from coca leaves! The production, sale and trafficking of coca paste paco and cocaine hydrochloride are illegal in Peru; the possession restricted to a few grams for personal use only see below under Peruvian Drug Laws. Persons apprehended with cocaine or other illegal substances will face immediate arrest, long interrogations, and imprisonment for usually 5 up to 15 years, or in worst cases even 25 years, often without being granted remission or extradition to their home country. And as the PNP anti-narcotics unit at the airport, for example, is quite fit and alert, think twice before smuggling anything out of the country or doing someone a favor. Unfortunately, in the last few years, the number of unqualified 'healers' performing these ceremonies increased immensely. As consuming Ayahuasca and other traditional medicine not only can be a life changing and mind opening experience or heal your mind, body, and soul, but in some cases result in serious illness and even death, we strongly advise to only select established, recommended healing retreats where an experienced shaman accompanies the participants from the beginning to the end. Please have a medical check-up before participating in Ayahuasca rituals, as the vine not only increases the heart rate and blood pressure but as well causes significant psychological stress. In November , after a long struggle and persistence of patients, their relatives, and supporters, the Peruvian Congress finally recognized the medicinal properties of cannabis and made the medical and therapeutic usage of marijuana legal in Peru. The Law now allows the informed use, research, production, import and sale of cannabis and its derivates, but exclusively for medicinal and therapeutic purposes in accordance with the regulations provided. To be allowed to buy and use medical marijuana in Peru, patients have to go through a consultation from a registered physician and get his or her authorization. Then they are registered with their personal information, including disease and cannabis treatment plan, which has to be approved by the Peruvian Ministry of Health, in a special database. We highly recommend to not cross the border with cannabis or any derivates even though you might be allowed to consume them in your home country. However, CBD oil, for example, and other healing goodies are sold in some shops without prescription. Peru has quite extensive and clear laws when it comes to drugs and illicit substances, which can be found in the Peruvian Penal Code. They cover all topics from cultivation, production, trafficking including forcing others to smuggle , selling and consumption of cocaine, marijuana, opiates, ecstasy, and others. Above mentioned quantities are only considered unpunishable if you just have one 1! As soon as you carry two or more different drugs, even below the above-mentioned quantities, you violate Peruvian law. So, if they find a joint and an ecstasy pill on you, you might already be in deep trouble. Additionally, you should be aware that Peruvian police is quite flexible with the interpretation of the law and even though you only have an unpunishable amount of one drug for personal use on you, you might be considered a potential trafficker, brought to the police station, intimidated, unlawfully detained, and forced to pay a bribe to get out of this unpleasant experience. Those thinking to participate in drug trafficking, because it's quick and easy money, don't do it. The anti-narcotics unit of the PNP, especially at the airport, is quite professional and well-equipped. Long prison sentences await you, and you should know that Peru's prisons don't meet international standards and mostly are extremely overcrowded. Hygienic conditions and food are on a very low level, supplies with other necessities are difficult and fellow prisoners aren't always well-disposed. And with Peru being one of the largest cocaine producers in the world and scoring high on the lists of production countries of other drugs as well, cartels are present in certain regions, powerful and anything but squeamish. Tintin Updated October 29, I have read and agree with the Terms and Conditions. Loading comment The comment will be refreshed after Peru Newsflash. New lizard species discovered in Peru There is still so much new to find out about and see in Peru. Just recently Peruvian scientists discovered a…. Peru has the second-worst drivers in the world For those living and driving in Peru it comes to no surprise. A recent study by Compare the Market, an…. Machu Picchu reopens for the first time after the social outbreak The Ministry of Culture of Peru decided to re-open Machu Picchu after it was closed on January 21 because of…. Peru Event Calendar. Date : Thursday, 31 October Upcoming Events in Peru Day of the Creole Song. Celebration of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary. Latest Content International Schools in Peru. Peruvian Visa Types. Peruvian Cheese. Legal Stuff. Latest Video. Listing: Maria Reiche Long Reads Peruvian Archaeology. In the s, when people first flew across southern Peru, they made an astonishing discovery. Stretching below them,…. Francisco Pizarro, a peasant from Spain, was one of the least well-equipped conquerors in history. However, in the name…. By a quiet pond, at the side of a cloud-topped mountain in Peru, lived a small green frog and his large green family. Peru Info. The Peruvian economy is an emerging, social market economy highly dependent on foreign trade and classified as an upper…. This website is made by te-media - Creative Digital Solutions. All profits we make from it through advertising and other channels go back into the project.

Use of psychoactive substances among university students from 2019 to 2020: A systematic review

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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Corresponding author. Psychoactive substances act on the central nervous system producing changes in mental processes, such as perception, consciousness, cognition or mood and emotions. The present study aims to identify: i the most used psychoactive substances, ii how psychoactive substances are acquired, iii and possible reasons for the use of psychoactive substances amongst university students. A literature search was carried out without language restrictions and included articles published between and in journals indexed in the electronic databases of Pubmed and Scielo. The inclusion criteria considered were: i original articles, ii studies carried out with university students, iii providing data on the use of psychoactive substances. Reasons that led to the consumption of psychoactive substances include: feelings of loneliness after moving away from family; difficulty making new friends; poor academic performance and susceptible environment to acquisition of these substances. In the selected studies, alcohol was identified as the main drug used. In light of the findings reported in this review, new prevention and harm reduction measures can be formulated, based mainly on the reasons that lead to the use of psychoactive drugs, consumption patterns and how the drugs were acquired by university students. The consumption of psychoactive substances is not a recent phenomenon and has been around since prehistory across a diversity of human cultures. Throughout history, the use of psychoactive drugs has not only been associated with medicine and science, but also magic, religion, culture and recreational use Tavares et al. Studies show that the main reason individuals start to consume a psychoactive substance is the sensation of pleasure, called positive reinforcement, experienced after its consumption. Thus, individuals increasingly make recreational use of psychoactive substances as an attempt to find relief from the difficulties of day-to-day life or just due to the desire to experience something new Carvalho et al. Among the different psychoactive substances available, there are legal and illegal drugs. Alcohol and tobacco are considered legal drugs in several countries and are the most widely used drugs associated with substance use disorder in the world United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Marijuana is the most consumed million people , followed by amphetamines 25 million , opiates 16 million, 11 million of whom are heroin users , cocaine 13 million and ecstasy 10 million United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Some drugs, such as anxiolytics, opioid analgesics and amphetamines are important therapeutic resources of modern medicine. However, due to the worldwide consumption of these legal drugs, they have also become associated with the harmful effects of substance use disorders commonly associated with the use of illicit drugs Sengik and Scortegagna, It has been observed that substance dependence and abuse are statistically related, mainly, when barbiturates, benzodiazepines, opioid analgesics and amphetamines are involved. The consumption of high doses of analgesics, antipyretics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs NSAIDs leads to the appearance of anticholinergic effects, such as delusions and hallucinations, which has increased its use as a recreational drug Silva et al. Regarding cognitive enhancers, they are increasingly being used among healthy individuals, mainly students without any diagnosed cognitive disorders, to increase their alertness, concentration, or memory, in the belief that these cognitive enhancers will improve their performance during examinations or when studying Sharif et al. The link between an adverse childhood and the susceptibility to substance use disorder has been widely described. A research study shown that the immune system mediates this relationship. This study demonstrated that exposure to psychosocial stress in early life makes permanent changes in the peripheral and central immune system, rendering it more sensitive to immune challenges later in life. Furthermore, the authors also revealed that sensitization to cocaine in early life-stressed individuals also involves brain and peripheral immune responses Iacono et al. Some epidemiological studies have been undertaken in Brazil assessing the prevalence of psychoactive drug use among the university population. Most of them agree that the use of alcohol and other substances is higher among university students when compared to the general population and high school students Stempliuk et al. Findings from studies show that the consequences of university students consuming psychoactive substances include car accidents, violence, risky sexual behavior, poor academic performance, decreased perception and stress Silva et al. The present study aims to identify: i the most used psychoactive substances, ii how psychoactive substances are acquired, and iii possible reasons for the use of psychoactive substances amongst university students. A review of the current literature on the use of psychoactive substances among university students around the world has been carried out. The electronic databases used were Pubmed and Scielo. These terms were applied to all databases used. This review was completed on April 30, This review was developed without language restrictions and included articles published between and , to obtain more recent evidence about the use of psychoactive substances before Covid pandemic. The inclusion criteria considered were: i original articles, ii studies carried out with university students, and iii studies providing data on the use of psychoactive substances. Studies that did not meet these criteria as well as retrospective studies or studies with incomplete or missing data were excluded. To select the articles, an analysis was performed first by title and, later, by abstract, which allowed the exclusion of those articles that did not meet the eligibility criteria. The selected articles were read in full and after that, once they met the criteria, included in this review. The studies were evaluated by two authors G. In case of disagreement, a third author D. After analyzing the titles and abstracts, 15 articles were included in this review. Among the studies included, 4 papers addressed possible reasons that lead to the use of psychoactive substances Kahsay et al. The characteristics of the included studies are shown in Table 1. The findings were not affected by the COVID pandemic, as the selected articles were carried out before the pandemic. While changes in drug use were closely related to stringent restrictive measures during the and lockdowns and subsequent phases of reopening, a lack of control about drinking was observed Gili et al. What motivates university students to use psychoactive drugs, has been a topic of much debate over the years. In a study conducted in Ethiopia, the following themes emerged as drivers for the use of psychoactive substances among university students: feeling lonely after moving away from the family; having previous experience with other substances; socialization reasons; poor academic performance; the university environment which made it easier to gain access to substances; and limited recreational activities Kahsay et al. The practice of neuro-reinforcement to improve concentration and increase alertness, often due to academic pressure, were reported reasons for the misuse of stimulating drugs. In Saudi Arabia, a research study reported that the most common reason for misuse of stimulants by many university students involves attempts to prolong study time Alrakaf et al. In a study with university students from Bosnia-Herzegovina, the consumption of coffee, energy drinks, nicotine, alcohol and marijuana, for neuro-improvement purpose, increased during the week prior to the exams Kusturica et al. Furthermore, a study carried out in Europe investigated the correlation between sleep quality and drug use among university students. Insomnia symptoms were highly prevalent and more common among younger students. In the sections below, we will discuss the main findings in relation to consumption patterns of psychoactive substances by continent. A study conducted in Nigeria with university students showed that the level of previous alcohol use throughout life at least once and current alcohol use was Another research study from Nigeria, with undergraduate students participating, shows that lifetime prevalence of psychoactive substance use was The prevalence of current use was Of the students included in this study, In South Africa, a study was conducted with medical students; were second year students and 58 were third year students. Alcohol use was reported in In the second year, 2. Tobacco use was common in both groups, with In a study of students from different European universities, A research study on the use of illicit substances with students from 17 different colleges in Berlin, evaluated different periods of use, and found that In relation to multiple drug use, a study in Spain participants showed that In addition, weekend consumption was higher than during the week, in all types of multiple drug users Font-Mayolas et al. A survey was carried out with students from a large university in the Midwest. According to another study investigating the use of hallucinogens with students, they found prevalence of 4. The use of hallucinogens has also been associated with the use of several other drugs, for example, alcohol, opiates, and the development of mental health problems and risky sexual behavior Grant et al. A cross-sectional survey of undergraduate students in the field of social sciences and health sciences in San Salvador, El Salvador, showed that in relation to consumption in the year prior to the survey, The study inferred that the use of alcohol, cocaine and marijuana did not affect academic performance of the students Olano and Wright, In Peru, 86 third-year nursing students from a private university in the Arequipa Metropolitan Region, participated in a survey. The results show a high prevalence for the use of legal substances during their whole life, with Regarding illegal drugs, Furthermore, in terms of legal drugs tranquilizers were the most commonly reported In a survey conducted at seven of nine universities in Wales, students who reported using one or more illegal drug were asked how they obtained their drugs, how they financed their use, whether they sold, marketed or distributed illegal drugs, along with their reasons for trading drugs. The results showed that about half of the users obtained medicines from friends and associates only, and one fifth exclusively from external dealers. One quarter used friends and associates, as well as external markets. In many cases, supplying drugs amounted to sharing them or giving them away. However, over one third of students said that they had sold drugs Bennett and Holloway, This research is limited to presenting a systematic review of linked studies in two databases and in a specific period, without implementing a meta-analysis. The need for systematic reviews with meta-analysis is highlighted to estimate a summary measure of the prevalence of psychoactive substance use among university students worldwide. In addition, we did not find studies carried out in Oceania countries that met the inclusion criteria. From the studies reviewed, it appears that alcohol is the most commonly used psychoactive substance used by university students, but the consumption profile for some substances differs across continents. For example, khat is more common used in the African continent; cocaine use is commonly used in South and Central America; hallucinogens and recreational medications, such as sedatives and tranquilizers, are commonly used in North America; while in Europe the combined use of cannabis, alcohol and tobacco is common. The main reasons found for the consumption of these substances were related to being far away from family, influences from friends, ease of obtaining drugs at university and an attempt to improve academic performance. In this way, the present review emphasizes the need for prevention and harm reduction measures in university environments. In addition, the information reported in this review about the reasons that lead to the use of these substances, consumption patterns and how these substances are acquired, may help in the formulation of new public policies aimed at preventing the abusive use of psychoactive substances and harm reduction in university students. Suzana Braga de Souza: Supervision, Writing — original draft. On behalf of all the authors I declare that all of us have none competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Brain Behav Immun Health. Find articles by Gustavo Reis Sampaio. Find articles by Gabriel Silva Lima. Find articles by Suzana Braga de Souza. Find articles by Denis de Melo Soares. Published by Elsevier Inc. Open in a new tab. Alrakaf et al. Kusturica et al. Ajayi, Owolabi and Olajire Ajayi et al. Tesema et al. Vorster et al. Viohl et al. Font-Mayolas et al. Grant, Lust and Chamberlain Grant et al. Urday-Concha et al. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel. Kahsay, Tesema and Bazzano Kahsay et al. Main reasons for use are: feeling powerless after the family has left, previous experience with substances and socialization. The ability to prolong study time has been reported as the most common reason for illicit use of stimulants by students. The consumption of psychoactive substances such as energy drinks, nicotine, alcohol and marijuana, for neuro-enhancement purposes, increased during the week before the exams. Insomnia symptoms were highly prevalent and more common among younger students, who had been studying at the university for less time and had high levels of illicit drug use. Current use of High prevalence throughout life The prevalence of hallucinogenic use in the last year was 4. Olano and Wright Olano and Wright, Bennett and Holloway Bennett and Holloway,

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