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An idol (アイドル, aidoru) is a type of entertainer manufactured and marketed for image, attractiveness, and personality in Japanese pop culture. Idols are primarily singers with training in acting, dancing, and modeling. Idols are commercialized through merchandise and endorsements by talent agencies, while maintaining a parasocial relationship with a passionate consumer fan base.
Japan's idol industry first emerged in the 1960s and became prominent in the 1970s and 1980s due to television. During the 1980s, regarded as the "Golden Age of Idols", idols drew in commercial interest and began appearing in commercials and television dramas. As more niche markets began to appear, the late 2000s and early 2010s led to a significant growth in the industry known as the "Idol Warring Period." Today, over 10,000 teenage girls in Japan are idols, with over 3,000 groups active. Japan's idol industry has been used as a model for other pop idol industries, such as K-pop.
Sub-categories of idols include gravure idols, junior idols, net idols, idol voice actors, virtual idols, AV idols, Akiba-kei idols, local idols, and Japanese-Korean idols.
An idol is a type of entertainer whose image is manufactured to cultivate a dedicated consumer fan following. Talent agencies commercialize idols by recruiting preteens and teenagers with little or no experience in the entertainment industry, and market them as aspiring stars.[8][9] Idols are predominantly singers, but are also often trained in acting, dancing, and modeling.[10][11][12][13][14][15][16] This style of recruiting and training was pioneered by Johnny Kitagawa, the founder of Johnny & Associates, and has since been used in other pop idol industries such as Korean idols in K-pop.[17][18]
Music from idol singers is generally categorized under J-pop,[19] though talent agencies may label them under the sub-genre "idol pop" for further distinction.[8][20] Some talent agencies do not rigorously train their idols,[21] and market them as amateurs who will gain experience over the course of their careers and with the support of their fans.[8][22] Many idol singers find success as groups rather than individually.[23]
Idols are marketed for their image, attractiveness, and personalities.[10][24] An idol's main objective is to "sell dreams", offering fans a form escapism from the troubles of daily life.[23] As such, they are seen as role models to the public, and their personal lives and image can sometimes be tightly controlled by their talent agencies.[25] Common restrictions include not being allowed to smoke or drink in public, or pursue romantic relationships.[25] Idols often spend time isolated from family and friends while enduring busy work schedules,[26] with some agencies withholding job assignments from their talents and notifying them of work on short notice to prevent them from taking time off.[27]
Within each idol group, the members are sometimes given distinct roles. One example of a role is the center, who occupies the center position in the group's choreography and thus receives the most focus.[28] Another example is the leader, usually relegated to the oldest or most experienced member in the group, who acts as an intermediary for the members and the staff.[29]
Idols are typically expected to change careers after aging out of the industry, with female idols typically changing careers at age 25[30] and male idols at ages 30–45.[31] Because of their manufactured image and often fleeting careers, idols are generally not regarded as "serious" artists;[32] consequently, many young Japanese artists pursuing careers in acting or music reject the idol label in their bid to be seen as professionals.[33] Idols who leave a group are often given a farewell concert known as "graduations" (卒業, sotsugyō),[34] which originated from the idol group Onyanko Club, as the group's youthful concept drew similarities to an after-school club.[35] An idol having a "graduation" ceremony is seen more favorably than terminating a contract or voluntarily withdrawing, as the latter two terms are negatively connoted with scandals.[36]
Mia Yanagawa [ja] (pictured 2019) is a gravure idol, appearing in pin-up style pictorials.
Yua Mikami (pictured 2019) is an AV idol, appearing in adult videos as well as promoting in idol groups such as Honey Popcorn.
Dempagumi.inc is an Akiba-kei idol group, with music and performances influenced by the otaku culture in Akihabara.[37]
Perfume (pictured 2015) began as a local idol group performing in Hiroshima.[38]
Iz*One (pictured 2019) is a Japanese-Korean idol group that promoted both in South Korea and Japan.
The diversity of Japan's idol industry has created several sub-category markets, each with a specific concept appealing to certain audiences.[39]
The popularity of young female singers can be traced back to Sayuri Yoshinaga in the 1960s, as well as the Takarazuka Revue and theater shows from the Meiji era.[39] In 1962, Johnny Kitagawa founded Johnny & Associates and created the group Johnnys, which was retroactively considered the first idol group in Japan.[65] He is also credited with pioneering the idol trainee system, where talents would be accepted in the agency at a young age and train not only in singing, but also dancing and acting, until they were ready for debut.[18] However, the concept of an idol wasn't defined by mainstream Japanese media until in November 1964, when the 1963 French film Cherchez l'idole was released in Japan under the title Aidoru o Sagase (アイドルを探せ).[68] Many Japanese audiences took interest in Sylvie Vartan, whose song "La plus belle pour aller danser" from the film sold more than a million copies in Japan.[68] Vartan was heralded for her youthful, adorable looks and musical talent, leading the Japanese entertainment industry to assign the word "idol" to singers who shared a similar aesthetic.[68]
Television greatly impacted the popularity of the idol phenomenon, as beginning in the 1970s, many idols were recruited through audition programs.[69][70] In addition, the availability of having home television sets gave audiences greater accessibility of seeing idols at any time compared to going to theaters.[71]:201 Momoe Yamaguchi,[30] Junko Sakurada,[72] Saori Minami, and Mari Amachi, some of the idols recruited through television, were some of the more popular figures of this era,[70] along with groups such as Candies and Pink Lady.[72] Saori Minami, who debuted in 1971, was noted by scholar Masayoshi Sakai to be the turning point of when teenage stars became popular in mainstream media.[39] Music was produced by a shared climate of songwriters and art directors seeking a step towards a depoliticized youth culture.[72] Idols grew in popularity over the 1970s, as they offered audiences escapism from political violence and radical student movements.[70]
Idols at the time were seen as ephemeral because of how short-lived their careers were, and how they would disappear from the public after retirement.[71]:203 In public, idols played a distinct character to uphold the illusion of perfection, such as having a virginal image.[71]:203 Other examples include being told not to use restrooms in public and answering interview questions about their favorite food with feminine-sounding answers such as "strawberries" and "shortcake."[71]:203
The influence idols had on television led the 1980s to be known as the "Golden Age of Idols",[30] in part due to Japan's economic bubble and growing commercial interest in them.[39] Several figures who defined the Golden Age of Idols are Seiko Matsuda,[30] Akina Nakamori, Kyōko Koizumi, and Onyanko Club.[16] Television programs in which idols appeared often enjoyed high viewer ratings.[16] Dentsu also created the "CM idol" business model, where idols were able to gain fame by singing and appearing in commercials.[72]
Onyanko Club, in particular, shifted public perception of idols from professional stars to ordinary schoolgirls who would gain experience throughout their career.[39] They were also the first group to introduce a "graduation system", where older members would eventually leave the group while newer inexperienced members would join,[39] with the system being named such as the group drew similarities to a school club.[35] Onyanko Club also led to idols becoming closely associated with television, as the visual component became important to the overall enjoyment of their music.[72]
At the same time, male idols gained popularity, with acts from Johnny & Associates normalizing idols singing and dancing at the same time.[18] However, fewer male idol acts from other companies achieved the same success as Johnny's idols due to the company's CEO, Johnny Kitagawa, controlling the media and pressuring certain programs not to invite male idols from competing agencies, an act that would remain until his death in 2019.[18]
Around 1985, idols soon became unpopular after the public became disillusioned with the idol system.[70] By the 1990s, public interest in idols began to wane,[26] as audiences lost interest in singing and audition programs,[16] particularly due to a shift in attitudes caused by Japan's economic collapse.[39] As a result, more young people yielded aspirations to be defined as an artist instead of an idol.[16] During this decline, public perception of idols again shifted from inexperienced amateurs to strong, independent women, in part due to a rehaul in Seiko Matsuda's public image.[39] Namie Amuro, who gained fame as the lead singer of Super Monkey's, found popularity among young girls who emulated her appearance.[16] At the same time, Speed also found a fan following.[39] However, neither Amuro nor Speed referred to themselves under the idol label.[39] Because of the lack of publicity over idols on television, many turned to the Internet.[16]
Johnny & Associates observed the popularity of former Shibugakitai member Hirohide Yakumaru's success as an MC on variety shows, which prompted them to develop and market their current acts with distinct public personalities.[73] Groups from the company began gaining more attention, drawing in fans from Hong Kong and Taiwan,[16] and their marketing success led to many other idols doing the same.[73]
In the mid-1990s, there was an increase in young idols in the elementary school age, which the media described as the "Chidol (child idol) Boom."[41][74] The term "chidol" was coined by journalist Akio Nakamori in the magazine Weekly Spa![43] In the 2000s, "chidol" saw fewer usage, and it was eventually replaced by the term "junior idol" to legitimize them as part of the idol industry as well as removing the focus on their age.[44]
The 2000s saw the rise in popularity of idol groups again after Morning Musume's debut in 1997 and the formation of their musical collective, Hello! Project.[39][42] Around the same time, there was an increase in gravure idols, who competed in magazine and photo book sales.[41][42] In addition, anime voice actors, such as Yui Horie, Nana Mizuki, and Yukari Tamura, were also marketed as idols to promote both their activities and singing careers.[50][51]
While idols briefly experienced another decline after 2002, AKB48 debuted in 2005 and later became known as nation's idol group.[42] The public image of idols had diversified, with each idol group having a specific concept appealing to different audiences.[39] To celebrate the diversity of idols, AKB48, Shoko Nakagawa, and Leah Dizon performed a medley called "Special Medley: Latest Japan Proud Culture" at the 58th Kohaku Uta Gassen in 2007, introduced as "Akiba-kei idols" with each act described as a different sub-genre of idols.[75]
The idol industry experienced a rapid growth in the beginning of the 2010s, and the media coined the nickname "Idol Warring Period" (アイドル戦国時代, Aidoru Sengoku Jidai) to describe the phenomenon.[26][42] Lawyer Kunitaka Kasai cited the Internet as a reason for the rapid growth of idols, as anyone can upload videos onto websites, and AKB48's business model encouraged this even further through creating more opportunities for fan interactivity.[76] The 2013 television drama Amachan also inspired more idol groups to appear, the majority of them being "local idols" who performed in specific rural communities.[38][39] Several independent idol groups also crossed over into mainstream, such as Dempagumi.inc,[37] Dorothy Little Happy,[38] and Rev. from DVL, the latter of which gained mainstream popularity after a photo of then-member Kanna Hashimoto went viral.[60]
SMAP (left, 2008) and Arashi (right, 2019) are best-selling male idols from Johnny & Associates who have led successful careers for over 20 years.[18]
Since 2010, the biggest idol concert festival, Tokyo Idol Festival, has taken place.[26] More than 200 idol groups and about 1500 idols performed, attracting more than 80,000 spectators in 2017.[26] During 2014, about 486,000 people attended AKB48 and Momoiro Clover Z's live concerts, which was the highest record of all female musicians in Japan.[77] Momoiro Clover Z has been ranked as the most popular female idol group from 2013 to 2017 according to surveys by The Nikkei,[1] while male idol group Arashi that was ranked as the most popular artist overall in Japan according to Oricon polls of 20,000 people.[78][79][80][81][82] There were more than 10,000 teenage girls who performed as idols in Japan in 2017.[23] In 2019, there were over 3,000 female idol groups.[83]
Beginning in the mid-to-late 2010s, the Japanese idol industry crossed over with K-pop with the third Korean wave in Japan, which was sparked partially from positive reception of the Japanese members of the South Korean group Twice.[84][85] In the years that followed, several Japanese and South Korean companies collaborated to form K-pop influenced groups for a global consumer base, such as Iz*One,[86] JO1,[87] and NiziU.[64][88]
Hitomi Honda interacts with a fan at an AKB48 handshake event in 2017.
A crowd of wota perform wotagei at an idol concert in Akihabara in 2011.
 Cute - Cutie Circuit 2011
Fans are swaying glow sticks in the color of their favorite band member and cheering their idols with chants. When a Cute member sings a solo line, everyone shouts her name. (For example, from 2:11: "Maimi!", "Airi!, "Maimi!", "Airi!")
 Momoiro Clover - "Z Densetsu".
The audience is filled with fans dressed in the color of their favorite Momoiro Clover Z member.
Passionate male fans of idols are colloquially referred to as wota (ヲタ), derived from the word "otaku."[89] Beginning in the 1980s, they formed cheering groups known as bodyguards (親衛隊, shineitai) to support idols at concerts and public appearances.[16] During these events, the wota perform wotagei, an organized sequence of fan chants and dancing to show appreciation for the idols.[90] Fan chants where an idol's name is called after each bar is sung was popularized by Mari Amachi's fans in the 1970s, referencing her appearance in the 1971 television drama Jikan desu yo [ja].[71]:202
Because mainstream Japanese media exercises self-censorship over taboo, controversial subjects,[25] fans are influential in circulating under-reported news through social media.[91]
Idol fan culture has introduced several slang terms into the Japanese public, including:[92]:4
A notable trait of idols that sets them apart from typical celebrities is their relationship with fans, and they are marketed intentionally by talent agencies to have a high emotional connection with their consumer fan base. Fans are built as active supporters into the narrative of the idol's journey to become a professional entertainer,[22] viewing them as siblings, daughters/sons, or girl/boy next door types due to how easily they can relate to the public.[96][15][97] One documented example are fans of female idols, typically consisting of men from 30 to 40 years of age, who seek interactions with them as a way of having a long-term relationship without the prospect of supporting a family or dealing with awkwardness outside of a controlled environment.[98] The idol fan culture idealizes the idea of moe, where vulnerability is seen as an attractive trait.[22]
Using idols from Johnny & Associates as an example, male idols appeal to female fans by representing a pseudo-romantic ideal for them.[71]:207 However, there are some female fans, particularly in Japan, who prefer to put themselves in the role of an external observer.[71]:207 For them, the absence of other women is a way of watching the male idols interact with one another and imagining their interactions to be similar to yaoi.[71]:207
Fans spend money on merchandise and endorsed products to directly support their favorites, comparing it to spending money on "loved ones"; some express feeling happy that they were able to make someone they admired happy.[99] Dedicated fans may give up their careers and devote their life savings to supporting and following their favorite members.[23] To foster a closeness between idols and fans, some talent agencies offer meet-and-greets in the form of handshake events, where fans have the opportunity to shake hands, take a photograph, and speak briefly with the idols.[23][96] AKB48's business model created more opportunities for fan interactions with their "idols you can meet" concept.[76] An example of this are their elections, where fans can vote for their favorite member, thereby including the fans directly into the members' individual success.[39] Because idols share an intimate relationship with their fans, fans may feel "betrayed" if idols reveal unfavorable parts of their personal lives that are different from the image they present, or break the illusion that they are there exclusively for fans.[26]
Idols are a key part of media and advertising in Japan, with 50-70% of commercials in Japan featuring an idol.[100] The "CM idol" business model, conceptualized by advertising agency Dentsu in the 1980s, uses idols' public image as a marketing asset.[72] As the career of idols are dependent on their image, contracting offices create their image based upon trends in the market and with the intent of generating as much revenue as possible.[101][70] Along with promoting products, commercials are also a cross-platform to promote idols at the same time by keeping both brand and idol product in the forefront of the consumers' minds.[72] Pitches for commercials are often made with a specific idol who matches the company's image in mind. Idols contracted to particular brands are expected to uphold the brand's image and may not work for competing brands or networks; the agreement extends to magazine advertisements, online videos, and appearances in dramas.[100] Idols may also provide the music or jingle for commercials.[102] The idol industry makes approximately $1 billion a year.[23]
Beginning in the 1980s, companies would compete to secure contracts for idols in dramas, which led to the curren
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