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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the group of Sinitic languages. For other languages spoken in China, see Languages of China .
"Han language" redirects here. For the Athabaskan language, see Hän language . For the ancient languages of Korea, see Han languages .
Unless otherwise specified, Chinese in this article is written in simplified Chinese / traditional Chinese ; pinyin order. If the simplified and traditional characters are the same, they are written only once.
Hànyǔ written in traditional (top) and simplified characters (middle); Zhōngwén (bottom)
  Countries and regions with a native Chinese-speaking majority.
  Countries and regions where Chinese is not native but an official or educational language.
  Countries with significant Chinese-speaking minorities.

^ de facto : While no specific variety of Chinese is official in Hong Kong and Macau, Cantonese is the predominent spoken form and the de facto regional standard, written in traditional Chinese characters . Standard Mandarin and simplified Chinese characters are only occasionally used in some official and educational settings. The HK SAR Government promotes 兩文三語 [Bi-literacy (Chinese, English) and Tri-lingualism (Cantonese, Mandarin, English)], while the Macau SAR Government promotes 三文四語 [Tri-literacy (Chinese, Portuguese, English) and Quad-lingualism (Cantonese, Mandarin, Portuguese, English)], especially in public education.

^ lit. " Han language"

^ lit. "Chinese writing"

^ Various examples include:
David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 312. "The mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the main ground for referring to them as separate languages."
Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar (1989), p. 2. "The Chinese language family is genetically classified as an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family."
Norman (1988) , p. 1. "[...] the modern Chinese dialects are really more like a family of languages [...]"
DeFrancis (1984) , p. 56. "To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that according to Chao are as great as those between English and Dutch. To call Chinese a family of languages is to suggest extralinguistic differences that in fact do not exist and to overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China."
Linguists in China often use a formulation introduced by Fu Maoji in the Encyclopedia of China : “ 汉语在语言系属分类中相当于一个语族的地位。 ” ("In language classification, Chinese has a status equivalent to a language family.") [4]

^ Jump up to: a b DeFrancis (1984) , p. 42 counts Chinese as having 1,277 tonal syllables, and about 398 to 418 if tones are disregarded; he cites Jespersen, Otto (1928) Monosyllabism in English ; London, p. 15 for a count of over 8000 syllables for English.

^ A distinction is made between 他 as 'he' and 她 as 'she' in writing, but this is a 20th-century introduction, and both characters are pronounced in exactly the same way.

^ Encyclopædia Britannica s.v. " Chinese languages ": "Old Chinese vocabulary already contained many words not generally occurring in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words for 'honey' and 'lion', and probably also 'horse', 'dog', and 'goose', are connected with Indo-European and were acquired through trade and early contacts. (The nearest known Indo-European languages were Tocharian and Sogdian, a middle Iranian language.) A number of words have Austroasiatic cognates and point to early contacts with the ancestral language of Muong–Vietnamese and Mon–Khmer."; Jan Ulenbrook, Einige Übereinstimmungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen (1967) proposes 57 items; see also Tsung-tung Chang, 1988 Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese .




^ Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012) , p. 3.

^ china-language.gov.cn Archived 2015-12-18 at the Wayback Machine (in Chinese)

^ "Summary by language size" . Ethnologue . 3 October 2018 . Retrieved 7 March 2021 .

^ Mair (1991) , pp. 10, 21.

^ Jump up to: a b Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012) , pp. 3, 125.

^ Norman (1988) , pp. 12–13.

^ Handel (2008) , pp. 422, 434–436.

^ Handel (2008) , p. 426.

^ Handel (2008) , p. 431.

^ Norman (1988) , pp. 183–185.

^ Schuessler (2007) , p. 1.

^ Baxter (1992) , pp. 2–3.

^ Norman (1988) , pp. 42–45.

^ Baxter (1992) , p. 177.

^ Baxter (1992) , pp. 181–183.

^ Schuessler (2007) , p. 12.

^ Baxter (1992) , pp. 14–15.

^ Ramsey (1987) , p. 125.

^ Norman (1988) , pp. 34–42.

^ Norman (1988) , p. 24.

^ Norman (1988) , p. 48.

^ Norman (1988) , pp. 48–49.

^ Norman (1988) , pp. 49–51.

^ Norman (1988) , pp. 133, 247.

^ Norman (1988) , p. 136.

^ Coblin (2000) , pp. 549–550.

^ Coblin (2000) , pp. 540–541.

^ Ramsey (1987) , pp. 3–15.

^ Norman (1988) , p. 133.

^ Zhang & Yang (2004) .

^ Sohn & Lee (2003) , p. 23.

^ Miller (1967) , pp. 29–30.

^ Kornicki (2011) , pp. 75–77.

^ Kornicki (2011) , p. 67.

^ Miyake (2004) , pp. 98–99.

^ Shibatani (1990) , pp. 120–121.

^ Sohn (2001) , p. 89.

^ Shibatani (1990) , p. 146.

^ Wilkinson (2000) , p. 43.

^ Shibatani (1990) , p. 143.

^ Jump up to: a b Wurm et al. (1987) .

^ Jump up to: a b c Norman (2003) , p. 72.

^ Norman (1988) , pp. 189–190.

^ Ramsey (1987) , p. 23.

^ Norman (1988) , p. 188.

^ Norman (1988) , p. 191.

^ Ramsey (1987) , p. 98.

^ Norman (1988) , p. 181.

^ Kurpaska (2010) , pp. 53–55.

^ Kurpaska (2010) , pp. 55–56.

^ Kurpaska (2010) , pp. 72–73.

^ 何, 信翰 (10 August 2019). "自由廣場》Taigi與台語" . 自由時報 . Retrieved 11 July 2021 .

^ 李, 淑鳳 (1 March 2010). "台、華語接觸所引起的台語語音的變化趨勢" . 台語研究 . 2 (1): 56–71 . Retrieved 11 July 2021 .

^ Klöter, Henning (2004). "Language Policy in the KMT and DPP eras" . China Perspectives . 56 . ISSN 1996-4617 . Retrieved 30 May 2015 .

^ Kuo, Yun-Hsuan (2005). New dialect formation : the case of Taiwanese Mandarin (PhD). University of Essex . Retrieved 26 June 2015 .

^ Jump up to: a b DeFrancis (1984) , p. 57.

^ Thomason (1988) , pp. 27–28.

^ Mair (1991) , p. 17.

^ DeFrancis (1984) , p. 54.

^ Romaine (2000) , pp. 13, 23.

^ Wardaugh & Fuller (2014) , pp. 28–32.

^ Liang (2014) , pp. 11–14.

^ Hymes (1971) , p. 64.

^ Thomason (1988) , p. 27.

^ Campbell (2008) , p. 637.

^ DeFrancis (1984) , pp. 55–57.

^ Haugen (1966) , p. 927.

^ Bailey (1973 :11), cited in Groves (2008 :1)

^ Mair (1991) , p. 7.

^ Hudson (1996) , p. 22.

^ Baxter (1992) , p. 7–8.

^ Norman (1988) , p. 52.

^ Matthews & Yip (1994) , pp. 20–22.

^ Terrell, Peter, ed. (2005). Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary . Berlin and Munich: Langenscheidt KG. ISBN 978-1-58573-057-5 .

^ Norman (1988) , p. 10.

^ "BBC - Languages - Real Chinese - Mini-guides - Chinese characters" . www.bbc.co.uk .

^ Dr. Timothy Uy and Jim Hsia, Editors, Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary – Advanced Reference Edition , July 2009

^ Kane (2006) , p. 161.

^ Requirements for Chinese Text Layout 中文排版需求 .

^ 黃華. "白話為何在五四時期「活」起來了？" (PDF) . Chinese University of Hong Kong .

^ 粵普之爭 為你中文解毒 .

^ 粤语：中国最强方言是如何炼成的_私家历史_澎湃新闻-The Paper . The Paper .

^ "白話字滄桑 - 陳宇碩 - 新使者雜誌 The New Messenger 125期 母語的將來" . newmsgr.pct.org.tw .

^ "全球華文網-華文世界，數位之最" .

^ Zimmermann, Basile (2010). "Redesigning Culture: Chinese Characters in Alphabet-Encoded Networks" . Design and Culture . 2 (1): 27–43. doi : 10.2752/175470710X12593419555126 . S2CID 53981784 .

^ "How hard is it to learn Chinese?" . BBC News . 17 January 2006 . Retrieved 28 April 2010 .

^ Wakefield, John C., Cantonese as a Second Language: Issues, Experiences and Suggestions for Teaching and Learning (Routledge Studies in Applied Linguistics) , Routledge , New York City, 2019., p.45

^ (in Chinese) "汉语水平考试中心：2005年外国考生总人数近12万", Gov.cn Xinhua News Agency , 16 January 2006.



Bailey, Charles-James N. (1973), Variation and Linguistic Theory , Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Baxter, William H. (1992), A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology , Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1 .
Campbell, Lyle (2008), "[Untitled review of Ethnologue , 15th edition]" , Language , 84 (3): 636–641, doi : 10.1353/lan.0.0054 , S2CID 143663395 .
Chappell, Hilary (2008), "Variation in the grammaticalization of complementizers from verba dicendi in Sinitic languages" , Linguistic Typology , 12 (1): 45–98, doi : 10.1515/lity.2008.032 .
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012), Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn 中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 [ Language Atlas of China (2nd edition): Chinese dialect volume ], Beijing: The Commercial Press, ISBN 978-7-100-07054-6 .
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DeFrancis, John (1984), The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy , University of Hawaii Press , ISBN 978-0-8248-1068-9 .
Handel, Zev (2008), "What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux" , Language and Linguistics Compass , 2 (3): 422–441, doi : 10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x .
Haugen, Einar (1966), "Dialect, Language, Nation", American Anthropologist , 68 (4): 922–935, doi : 10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00040 , JSTOR 670407 .
Hudson, R. A. (1996), Sociolinguistics (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-56514-1 .
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Groves, Julie (2008), "Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese" (PDF) , Sino-Platonic Papers (179)
Kane, Daniel (2006), The Chinese Language: Its History and Current Usage , Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8048-3853-5 .
Kornicki, P.F. (2011), "A transnational approach to East Asian book history", in Chakravorty, Swapan; Gupta, Abhijit (eds.), New Word Order: Transnational Themes in Book History , Worldview Publications, pp. 65–79, ISBN 978-81-920651-1-3 .
Kurpaska, Maria (2010), Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects" , Walter de Gruyter , ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2 .
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Chinese ( simplified Chinese : 汉语 ; traditional Chinese : 漢語 ; pinyin : Hànyǔ [b] or also 中文 ; Zhōngwén , [c] especially for the written language) is a group of languages that form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages , spoken by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in Greater China . About 1.3 billion people (or approximately 16% of the world's population) speak a variety of Chinese as their first language . [3]

The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be variants of a single language. Due to their lack of mutual intelligibility , however, they are classified as separate languages in a family by linguists, who note that the varieties are as divergent as the Romance languages . [d] Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is just starting. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese , of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin (with about 800 million speakers, or 66%), followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min ), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese ), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese ). [5] These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwest Mandarin , Xuanzhou Wu with Lower Yangtze Mandarin , Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan (though these are unintelligible with mainstream Hakka). All varieties of Chinese are tonal to at least some degree, and are largely analytic .

The earliest Chinese written records are Shang dynasty -era oracle bone inscriptions , which can be dated to 1250 BCE. The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern dynasties period, Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. Qieyun , a rime dictionary , recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language ( Guanhua ) based on Nanjing dialect of Lower Yangtze Mandarin .

Standard Chinese (Standard Mandarin), based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, was adopted in the 1930s and is now an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore , and one of the six official languages of the United Nations . The written form, using the logograms known as Chinese characters , is shared by literate speakers of mutually unintelligible dialects. Since the 1950s, simplified Chinese characters have been promoted for use by the government of the People's Republic of China, while Singapore officially adopted simplified characters in 1976. Traditional characters remain in use in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and other countries with significant overseas Chinese speaking communities such as Malaysia (which although adopted simplified characters as the de facto standard in the 1980s, traditional characters still remain in widespread use).

Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family , together with Burmese , Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif . [6] Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic . Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones . [7] Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear. [8] A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated. [9]

The first written records appeared
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