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By using our site, you agree to our collection of information through the use of cookies. To learn more, view our Privacy Policy. To browse Academia. Because these activities take place away from home and To date, few food security initiatives have looked directly at who is learning, what is being learned and how is it being learned in Faculties of Agriculture. In a country like Ethiopia, however, where agriculture is at the centre of development and where close to 80 per cent of the population live and work in rural areas, HEIs have a key role History and present. Log in with Facebook Log in with Google. Remember me on this computer. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Need an account? Click here to sign up. Helen Elsey. Parts of this publication may be reproduced for non-commercial use provided that such reproduction shall be subject to acknowledgment of ILRI as holder of copyright. Both men and women play important roles in input supply, production and marketing. To realize this potential, extension workers need to be aware of who plays what roles and who could potentially perform different roles and functions. It aims at assisting extension staff in analysing the roles of men and women in agricultural value chains and working towards a more gender balanced market-oriented agricultural development. Greater mobility to purchase inputs and market produce, coupled with increased spending power, are often quoted as contributing factors in increasing the risk of exposure to HIV. The IPMS project is sensitive to these potential threats and has developed tools to assess situations and propose solutions in the PLWs. We would like to acknowledge all IPMS project staff and government partners in the PLWs for their valuable assistance and inputs during the development of this manual and its testing. It works at the federal, regional and woreda administrative districts levels on institutional strengthening, capacity building and knowledge management. PLW activities focus on promoting priority marketable commodities crop and livestock in support of market-led integrated agricultural development through promoting innovation in commodity value chains; improving service delivery systems; increasing participation by input suppliers, rural finance and farmers organizations; and strengthening market linkage. These have been widely distributed and utilized by many government and non-government partners. This training manual is designed for use by organizations promoting equitable market-led rural development e. The training may also be of interest to civil society organizations and agricultural service providers operating in rural areas. The manual preseents detailed outlines for each of the 15 training sessions, setting out the session purpose, objectives and outline, together with specific activities and participatory exercieses. Each session is linked to supporting handouts, of which there are 14 in total. In addition, they will start getting to know each other and share their expectations. This is expected to break the ice between participants and start developing trust in each other, so they feel comfortable in sharing their experiences and viewpoints honestly. This requires that they should get to know each other and develop trust. To deepen the analysis you can ask the participants why their secret wishes could not be fulfilled. Write their explanations on the flipchart or white board. Gender roles and responsibilities 2. Gender access to and control over resources 3. Gender benefit sharing 4. Who controls what? Group 5 will cover gender benefit sharing and decision-making » Who benefits from which income source? This information is necessary in order to identify appropriate responses. The next question is to analyse the epidemic at community scale. Groups 1 and 2 » How do gender roles and responsibilities contribute to agricultural marketing inefficiencies? Group 5 » How does improved agricultural productivity and marketing potentially contribute to the spread of HIV and increase vulnerabilities to the impacts of the disease? For example, ask participants to write their names and put them in a cap. Mix all the names and ask five or six participants to draw out names randomly to form their groups. Three most important lessons learnt from the content of the training 2. Three most important lessons learnt from the process of the training 3. Write large Write three lines per card letters Use key Write words legibly Use different One idea per colours card Card rules Figure 1. How to write on cards. Mood meter It is a tool on which participants could express their feeling about the training workshop. Participants are requested to mark what they felt during the training at the end of the day or half a day on the labelled feeling. Ideally, it should be posted near the exit of the meeting hall where everyone can access it easily and express their feeling freely. Mood meter matrix for the participants. Gender identifies the social relations between men and women. Gender relations are contextually specific and often change in response to altering economic circumstances. Sex Gender Biological Socially constructed set of roles and responsibilities Born with Not born with Natural Learned Universal Cultural Cannot be changed Can be changed No variation from culture to culture or over time Variation from culture to culture and over time Example: Only women can give birth Example: Women able to do traditionally male jobs Figure 1. Difference between sex and gender. Gender analysis Gender analysis helps understand the needs, opinions and goals of both genders so that they can be integrated effectively into a project or development intervention. Who makes decisions? Who bears the burden? Who does what sort of work or has a specific role? Who uses the resources? Who controls the resources? Who benefits? The triple gender roles The division of labour in society illustrates both biological and gender differences. In most low income countries, women have triple roles, reproductive household , productive and community. Men primarily undertake productive and community activities. Reproductive role: This includes child-bearing responsibilities and domestic tasks done by women, required to guarantee the maintenance and reproduction of the labour force. It includes not only biological reproduction but also the care and maintenance of the work force male partner and the working children and future work force infants and school-going children. Productive role: work done by both women and men for payment in cash or kind. For women in agricultural production this includes work as independent farmers, peasants and wage labourers. This is unpaid work undertaken in their free time. Community political role: activities undertaken primarily by men at the community level, organized at the formal political level, often within the framework of national politics. This work is usually remunerated, either directly or indirectly, through status or power. Gender access to, control over resources and benefits In general the distinction between access and control is significant. Access represents the right to use a resource or benefit whilst control represents the right to make decisions about the use of a resource or benefit. Thus a woman may have the right to use family labour to assist with weeding but her husband decides who will help her and when the labour is available. Men and women do not have the same access or control over productive resources or benefits that accrue from them. This gender-based inequality can have implications for the design and implementation of development interventions. In doing gender analysis, planners therefore need to obtain information about the gender-based patterns of access to and control over resources and benefits in the given community. In the community? Gender participation in decision-making Decision-making takes place at the household, community and enterprise level. The ability of women to participate in, and shape the outcome of, decisions strengthens their voice and ensures their views are taken into account. If they are inadequately represented in this process, it is likely that their needs and priorities will be overlooked. What is HIV and how do people become infected? There are no clear symptoms of HIV infection but an infected person can pass on the virus to others. What is AIDS? AIDS is the final stage of the infection. Syndrome: a group of health problems that occur together or one after another but are all part of the same underlying medical condition Take note: these symptoms are similar to those associated with other illnesses so it is not possible to rely on these alone to determine whether someone has AIDS. Who can be infected with HIV? Everyone is potentially at risk from HIV infection and the disease is found in all races, nationalities and age groups. People are especially at risk if they practice high-risk behaviour, have risky-lifestyles or live in potentially risky environments which may expose them to the virus through unprotected sex, or infected blood and body fluids. However, HIV infection is preventable and a few precautions reduce the risk of infection even for those in high-risk groups. The virus is not spread through casual contact with infected people such as: shaking hands, hugging, sitting together or playing; sharing toilet or bathroom facilities; sharing dishes, utensils or food; eating food bought at the market from someone who is HIV-positive; wearing clean clothes which have been worn by a person living with HIV; through sneezing, coughing or insect bites; or witchcraft. Early detection not only enables an infected person to safeguard others from infection but also improve the quality of his or her own life. People with HIV can help themselves stay healthy by avoiding stress, resting and taking exercise, improving their diet, avoiding cigarettes, drugs and alcohol, and following good hygiene practices. They should avoid re-infecting themselves by always practising safe sex even with another HIV-positive person since re-infection may accelerate the onset of AIDS. Responsibility to others: HIV-positive people should ensure that other people do not come into contact with their blood or other body fluids and should always practice safe sex. Those living or working closely with HIV-positive people should take care not to expose PLWHA to infections such as colds, flu or other viruses which their weakened immune systems are less able to withstand. PLWHA need support, encouragement and respect; they should not be marginalized or discriminated by their community. The test should be accompanied by counselling, to provide i information about the test; ii advice about how individuals may protect themselves from infection if they have negative test results; and iii for those with positive test results, advice about how an infected person may protect others from infection, and their own care and treatment options. An individual passes through three stages between infection and death in the absence of anti-retrovirals ARVs. This process may spread over a period of up to 8 to 10 years. This stage is very risky for the spread of the disease because an infected person can pass on the virus to others without knowing they are doing so, through unprotected sex or sharing unsterilized skin piercing instruments. Good nutrition and medical treatment can slow down the rate at which HIV weakens the immune system. This stage, without any symptoms, may last between six to eight years. As these illnesses become more frequent and persistent, the patient suffers from chronic fatigue. Medical treatments can prevent or cure some of the illnesses associated with AIDS. Household resources are diverted into patient care, involving not only the time of other household members to tend to the sick but also financial resources for medical treatment. The ability of someone suffering from AIDS-related illnesses to carry on with their normal lives depends on the extent to which physical strength and visual appearance is important. Once the person has full-blown AIDS, life expectancy is two to three years. If the deceased had a spouse, it is very likely that the spouse is also infected and it is only a matter of time before he or she becomes sick. A household may remain in a state of being infected and affected for several years. Many households struggle to survive the death of key household members, particularly in communities where the property inheritance system is weak or characterized by property grabbing by relatives of the deceased. Why is stigma so harmful? Stigma is very common, particularly in rural communities where there are many misconceptions and misunderstandings about how the disease is transmitted. Many people fear all forms of contact with PLWHA even though normal daily activities are not a source of infection. Stigma has devastating consequences not just for the infected but also for their families and the wider community. People who may be infected are reluctant to have an HIV test and to tell others of their status. It explores the sources of risk of HIV infection, both for an individual and at community level, and identifies indicators of the impacts of AIDS. The pathway assists in identifying what makes individuals more or less likely to become infected with HIV and what makes them more or less vulnerable to the impacts of AIDS. The rate at which individuals pass along the pathway, or even commence the journey, depends on a number of factors. What are the drivers of the epidemic? What opportunities are there to address the epidemic? They also tend to have more limited access to opportunities to reduce their risk of infection such as sources of information, economic empowerment, negotiating power for safe sex, use of condoms. The household livelihood may be at risk if women have not had opportunities to develop the appropriate skills and have access to the necessary resources. If a community is at the initiating stage, most of the community members are before gate 1; at the impending stage, a significant number of the community will already be infected and progressing towards gate 2; if there are many AIDS-related deaths, the community is already beyond gate 3. How do we know what stage of the epidemic a community has reached? What are the sources of risk of HIV infection in rural communities? The interrelationships between these three components and the rural community are presented in Figure 2. It is also important to be aware of risks of infection specifically associated with agricultural production and marketing. Inter- and intra-linkages between rural communities and urban hinterland. What are HIV-risky environments? HIV-risky environments are not only urban phenomena but also exist within rural communities, drawing people together from a wide hinterland and often requiring them to spend time unaccompanied away from home. Some hotspots are present in all woredas, such as administrative centres, trading and market centres, secondary schools and colleges, and centres of employment. Other risky environments tend to be site specific, such as major road and rail routes, sizeable construction works, commercial farms etc. Who are the bridging populations? Since these activities take place away from home and the confines of community norms, the lack of social cohesion and anonymity may be a contributory factor, which encourages them to engage in activities outside their social norm. This includes professionals working and residing in rural communities who are often unaccompanied by their families, seasonal labourers, politicians, the military, commercial sex workers, construction workers, transporters, traders, agro-pastoralists, relatives, visitors, refugees, displaced people and resettlement farmers. What norms, traditions and cultural practices contribute to the spread of HIV? Once the virus is present within a rural community, cultural and social practices may contribute to its spread between people. Such practices potentially placing people at risk from HIV infection differ widely between communities and between regions. What are the indicators of AIDS impacts in the community? In the absence of hard data on AIDS-related illnesses and deaths in the community, it is necessary to look for proxies to provide insights regarding the extent to which communities have already been impacted by AIDS. It should be noted that these changes may also reflect causes other than AIDS. Which households are most vulnerable to the impact of AIDS? The impact varies according to sex and the age of the PLWHA, the nature of the livelihood and household wealth. Female-headed households are among the most vulnerable. It is likely that a larger group is already infected with HIV but not yet showing any symptoms C. Many household members are affected by the diversion of household resources to care for the sick or by fostering orphans D. Ultimately the whole community is at risk of infection E. Hence the scale of the problem presents a serious challenge to extension work even if prevalence rates are relatively low. Each of the above areas, together with the gender division of labour, control over resources, and sociocultural aspects, builds on establishing the risk to which women and young girls are pre-disposed compared to the risks faced by men and young boys. A discussion of the causes can help to identify the segments of the community who are most affected and who should be specifically interested in participating in activities aimed at removing the causes of the problem. Remember that each cause of the problem is also a problem in its own right The roots of the tree, in the lower part of the drawing, metaphorically represent the causes of the main problem. The tree trunk at the centre of the drawing represents the main problem and the tree branches, on the upper side of the drawing, provide a visual representation of the effects of the main problem. Never be afraid of asking or wondering why something is happening, even if it seems obvious. Wealth ranking and proportional piling for use with tool 1 Outsiders and community members have different perceptions of wealth and inequalities. Local perceptions are crucial for getting a deeper insight. Different people in a community men, women, merchants, labourers may use different criteria for wealth. Wealth ranking is based on the assumption that the community members have a good understanding among them about who is more or less well off. It is good practice to crosscheck this with another method e. This type of socioeconomic community profile may be used as a basis for sampling of households for interviews, to identify and target participants e. It is also useful for discussing coping strategies, opportunities, problems, and possible solutions of the respective wealth groups. Proportional piling is commonly used to identify social differentiation based on wealth techniques. Proportional piling helps to identify the proportion not individual households of different wealth groups and the criteria used to identify wealth categories by members of the community. Proportions may be represented by piles of local materials such as beans, stones, seeds, soil etc. For example, take 20 stones representing all the households in the community and ask for a volunteer to allocate the total of 20 stones between the different wealth groups. Give other people a chance to adjust the distribution until all are in agreement. In order to prepare a seasonal calendar, start with rainfall distribution and record the first month on the calendar at the beginning of the rainy season not necessarily the beginning of the calendar year. Note all the main crop and livestock enterprises. Record the months when they prepare the land, plant, weed and harvest for each enterprise; note if livestock activities are constant throughout the year or whether there is any seasonal variation. Explore also seasonal constraints and opportunities by noting changes by month throughout the year. Seasonal calendars can be prepared to examine other issues including labour demand, health problems, availability of feed, income and expenditures, market prices, migration patterns, availability of food, prevalence of pests and diseases etc. It can be used with the gender division of labour to see which seasons of the year is the busiest or the slack period to the specific segment of the society. Figure 1. Seasonal calendar and gender activity table for crop production in Wangedam, Bure. A particular map can be adapted according to the needs and purposes of the PRA activity in question. Can you show us more of the community. For example, where is this meeting place? Finally, ask why they do the mapping as they did and allow them to comment if there is limitations to it from their own perspective and record it properly. Triangulation Give a chance to different categories of people to comment on the map the youth, women, the elderly, children etc. Therefore it is better to avoid overindulgence to producing a perfect product. This requires effective facilitation skills. Field workers must build trust with local people to work effectively. The objectives of building trust are to develop communications and establish working relationships with local people. This helps to overcome suspicions and make future work easier. Building trust can be particularly difficult where there are language, cultural or religious differences between field workers and local people. Building trust with rural women is particularly important. Women are often overlooked, especially in men dominated societies as a result of cultural and other reasons. Both male and female field workers can successfully build rapport with women by being patient, tactful and resourceful. Establishing such mutual understanding involves a social interaction between the field workers and the community in which many spoken and unspoken signals are exchanged, as in any face-to-face communication between people. For this, field workers need to exercise and develop skills in order to achieve successful communication with communities. Even when community members are totally accustomed to the frequent presence of outsiders, it is the first impressions which influence the success of the work. It is important to be aware how first impressions, and the way in which community discuss and answer questions among themselves, can influence the ease or difficulty with which relationships of trust and confidences are established. The following tips are important for building a rapport between men and women. SSI can be held with individuals, groups, key informants and focus groups. Individual interviews: are conducted with a sam- Group interviews: provide access to a larger body ple of purposely-selected individual respondents. When groups Interviewing a number of different farmers on become too large as a rule of thumb more than the same topic quickly reveals a wide range of 20—25 management can be opinions, attitudes, and strategies. It is advisable difficult. Key informant interview: this interview is con- Focus group discussion: this technique is used to ducted with anyone who has special knowledge discuss specific topics in detail with a small group on a particular topic. Key of people 6—12 who have intimate knowledge informants are expected to be able to answer about the topic under consideration. Often a questions about the knowledge and facilitator is chosen to ensure that the discussion behaviour of others and especially about the does not diverge too far from the original topic operations of the broader systems. While there are and that no participant dominates the discussion. Outsiders who live in the community can be valuable key informants. Preparations 2. Assign responsibilities, i. Agree on how to conduct the interview: e. The quality of information depends in large part on the rapport established between the interviewer and the informant. Recording the interview 3. One, for responses and the other for observations. If it is a digital camera, share the photo afterwards with the subject. Savings and credit associations. Display information at accessible places where women visit; link up with functional adult literacy classes; adopt the household approach to reach women with agriculture and health extension messages. Address traditions so that the community, and men in particular, appreciate that women can participate in economic activities. Hold leadership training for women; give awards for women farmers. In meeting these needs, the existing division of labour is accepted and gender roles are not challenged. Such projects are concerned with improving the condition of women and men through promoting the efficiency of resource use, rather than addressing issues of empowerment or equity see below. Thus the division of labour would no longer be broadly determined by gender. Similarly, restrictions on access and control of resources and benefits would be independent of gender. In meeting strategic gender needs, a project sets out to change the relative position of women in the pursuit of empowerment and equity. It should be noted that the division between practical and strategic needs is not absolute; in some circumstances a project may address practical needs whereas, in a different context, the same project meets strategic needs. It is used to distinguish between two types: practical gender needs and strategic gender needs. Practical gender needs PGN Strategic gender needs SGN Tend to be immediate, short term Tend to be long term Unique to particular women Common to almost all women Relate to daily needs: food, housing, income, healthy children etc. Relate to disadvantaged position: subordination, lack of resources and education, vulnerability to poverty and violence etc. Easily identifiable by women Neither basis of disadvantage nor potential for change is necessary; easily identifiable by women Can be addressed by provision of specific inputs: food, hand pumps, clinic etc. Employment policy a. Skill training Cooking b. Human settlement policy a. Basic service a. Location of nursery X X d b. Establish farmers cooperatives in local communities; support on-farm seed multiplication; encourage growth of farm input shops in woreda; encourage maintenance and repair services to locate near activity e. Improve handling procedures at processing plants; improve the timeliness of pricing arrangements encourage farmers, labourers, traders to make productive use of their earnings? Broaden their horizons, encourage them to save and to invest in their future; provide training and advise households to plan and spend together; monitor and follow up how they use these skills reduce movement of labour? Reduce demand for seasonal labour e. Have activities been undertaken for gender awareness raising at various levels? Account is taken of the support given by partner organizations and potential support in the future. Put in measurable indicators, identify constraints such as limitation of time, money, human and material resources that can hamper reaching your stated goals and stipulated activities. Do not try to analyse and reason out simply list them as they come to your head. Finally get a list of tasks that can be done. Finally scrutinize your plan and try to further simplify it into a user friendly plan of action. Where do I put my action plan? The action plan should be displayed at your place of work where it can be glanced at easily and regularly. Action plans prepared by development agents, woreda experts and their partners can be posted in the FTCs and field offices. Prior to planning gender baseline information on the roles, responsibilities, position of men and women in the community including their access to and control power over important resources should be collected and analysed. Moreover the opportunities and challenges in increasing women participation in the agricultural development initiatives in general and in market-oriented agriculture should be explored and used during planning. These analyses will indicate where and how we target women in the project intervention; if and where the objectives and methods proposed for the project should be modified to improve the chances that the project will succeed through increasing women participation; and to minimize the likelihood that women will be disadvantaged as a result of it. Is a separate communication strategy needed to ensure that project messages reach women e. Is there scope for NGO involvement if such a component is feasible? For example, if new land arrangements are proposed, can the project require that the title be held jointly by the man and the woman in a household and exclusively by women in female headed households? A few internet resources for further reading: Time Management—Guide. Moreover, it helps to monitor and evaluate results, outcomes and impact on achieving over all well-being. Monitoring is defined as the continuous assessment of project implementation in relation to agreed schedules and of the use of inputs, infrastructure, and services by project beneficiaries. Evaluation is defined as a periodic assessment of the relevance, performance, efficiency, and impact expected and unexpected of the project in relation to stated objectives. Figure 2. Sources of risk of HIV infection in rural communities. New Criticism Tiyas Mondal. Semi-active Suspension Control Gheorghe Ghita. Pet vocabulary emilie irigoyen. Exercice en C mama baba. Libro proporcionado por el equipo Jose Alberto Casarrubias Herrera. Assessing the carcinogenic potential of low-dose exposures to chemical mixtures in the environment: the challenge ahead Harini krishnan. Correction: Hoshi et al. Metabolites , 12, Yoshikazu Ugawa.

Zliten buying weed