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You have full access to this open access article. A selected sample of the beads recovered was analyzed by laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry LA-ICP-MS to determine the origins of the glass used to make the beads and potential trade relationships are considered. The data show that two major glass types can be identified: mineral-soda glass, m-Na-Al, produced in Sri Lanka and possibly South India and plant ash soda glass. The latter comprises three subtypes: two with low alumina concentrations and different quantities of lime here designated v-Na-Ca subtypes A and B and one with high alumina designated v-Na-Al. The v-Na-Ca subtype A beads are chemically similar to Sasanian type 1 glass as well as Zhizo beads found in southern Africa, while v-Na-Ca subtype B compares reasonably well with glasses from Syria and the Levant. In contrast, during this period, all beads imported into southern Africa were made of Middle Eastern glass from east of the Euphrates v-Na-Ca subtype A and appear to have arrived on ships from Oman and the Persian Gulf. These data suggest that the two sections of the African coast were engaged in different Indian Ocean trade circuits. In and , the Sealinks Project www. The small site of Fukuchani lies on the northwest coast of the island, and Unguja Ukuu, which was a significant port town, lies on the southwest coast more or less opposite present-day Dar es Salaam see Figs. Earlier excavations at the two sites Horton and Clark ; Horton and Middleton ; Horton ; Juma provided evidence of Indian Ocean trade, but the Sealinks Project excavations were undertaken with the aim of further refining the chronological parameters for the two sites. Renewed excavation at the two sites was also undertaken as part of a systematic study by the Sealinks Project into the trans-oceanic biological exchange that brought a variety of Asian plants and animals to the East African coast in the premodern period Boivin et al. This paper addresses the glass component of the bead assemblages recovered from Fukuchani and Unguja Ukuu in the field season. Most of the beads recovered are not morphologically distinct; they are small and monochrome and are often types that were made over the span of several thousand years. We perform elemental analyses to trace the origins of the different glasses used to produce the beads. Since glass was widely traded in antiquity, however, we also examine the method by which the beads were made. We draw on these datasets to begin to reconstruct the trade routes that brought the beads to the African shore. We also compare the Zanzibar bead assemblages and the trade connections they inform with those in southern Africa during the same period to attempt to discern whether or not the two ends of the eastern African coast were involved in overlapping trade circuits. Unguja Ukuu is located on a narrow coral-rag peninsula between a resource-rich bay and a small, shallow inlet. The archaeological site extends over some 17 ha and contains settlement remains and deep midden deposits rich in animal bone, shell, iron slag, daub, glass fragments and beads, shell beads, bead grinders, and pottery. Fukuchani is situated on a long beach protected by the island of Tumbatu, which sits directly opposite the bay. When first recorded by Horton and Clark in , the site comprised a series of midden mounds that ran for 1 km along the beach, though on returning in , the Sealinks Project found that these had been largely destroyed by the construction of a local school on the site. Our excavations targeted areas where subsurface deposits appeared intact. The artifacts analyzed in this study derive from four trenches at Unguja Ukuu trenches 10—13 and three at Fukuchani trenches 10— The glass beads were found throughout the full depositional sequence at both sites in association with quantities of other imported goods, including Chinese and Near Eastern ceramics e. A suite of radiocarbon dates obtained from both sites support this chronology Crowther et al. Post AD ceramics found in the upper levels of trench 13 at Unguja Ukuu, including imported sgraffito ceramics, suggest that occupation of some of the excavated areas extended into the eleventh century CE or so. Trench 11 at Fukuchani primarily contained a human burial. All deposits at both sites were sieved with 3 mm or smaller mesh resulting in excellent retrieval rates: glass beads and one presumed weight came from Unguja Ukuu and 30 beads came from Fukuchani see Online Resource 1 for a full description of the samples and the contexts Footnote 1 from which they came. The selection of the beads for chemical analysis was not random but rather a range of each type and color was chosen to try to include all possible glass types present. Thus, 68 beads from Unguja Ukuu and 11 beads from Fukuchani were chosen for analysis. A small blue cuboidal glass object from Unguja Ukuu UU measuring 5. The laser ablation device contained a frequency quintupled Nd:YAG laser wavelength nm and pulse width 4 ns with a motorized stage. The mass spectrometer was set up in time-resolved analysis mode, measuring one point per isotopic mass and acquiring 53 masses values Table 1 gives the operational conditions. Five hundred shots were fired per spot. The raw ICP-MS data acquired in counts per second during the last shots were averaged for each of the 53 isotopes. Subsequently, the raw ICP-MS data were subjected to quantification with the so-called sum normalization calibration method previously described van Elteren et al. Glass standards from the Corning Museum of Glass CMG , which mimic ancient compositions, are the most suitable for accurate quantification of ancient glasses, especially for elements not present at trace levels, such as in lead glasses. Since ancient glass samples often show signs of surface degradation, the laser was used in drilling mode to enable the measurement of the actual elemental bulk composition underlying any degraded layer. Most of the samples presented leached and corroded surfaces with an enrichment of magnesia, potash, lime, or alumina compared to the pristine glass, due to the precipitation of mineral phases from the soil onto the glass surface. Online Resource 2 presents all the data from the analysis of 80 artifacts but including 84 analyses since several beads are multicolored and each color was tested comprising the contents of 52 elemental oxides. Online Resource 3 presents reduced compositions of all samples based on the method of Brill , pp. Online Resource 4 presents mean concentrations and standard deviations of all oxides by glass type and color, and Online Resource 1 provides morphological characteristics of all samples, their site contexts, and glass type. Magnesia concentrations are useful in separating these glass types: mineral soda glasses are normally characterized by MgO levels below 1. In addition, the m-Na-Al glass from these Zanzibar sites also contains higher concentrations of alumina than the plant ash glasses. Figure 3 clearly shows the separation between these glass types based on their lime and alumina concentrations. Plot of lime vs alumina for all analyzed Zanzibar beads reduced compositions calculated using the method of Panighello et al. Fifty-four Dussubieux et al. Two of these m Na-Al 1 and m-Na-Al 2 are found at sites in Africa, though the time span during which this glass occurred at sites sampled to date within Africa is more restricted. One of these glass subtypes, m-Na-Al 1, is present in the Zanzibar beads along with a few outliers that do not comfortably fit any known subtype. The m-Na-Al 1 glass was formerly known as low uranium-high barium or lU-hBa glass. At first, we thought it possible that some of the outliers belonged to the m-Na-Al 2 subtype, a high uranium-low barium glass formerly known as hU-lBa Dussubieux et al. These four elements were probably chosen because they were the only elements which presented an acceptable separation between the concentration ranges in m-Na-Al 1 and 2 glasses, even though the first three of these elements partially overlap. An analysis of the whole dataset, however, indicates that alumina may also be useful in separating the two subtypes, so here we include it and thus employ five elements—Sr, Zr, Ba, U, and Al—to characterize and compare the m-Na-Al Zanzibar beads. In comparing the Zanzibar m-Na-Al glasses to the compositions of Dussubieux et al. This included beads from South and West India as well as Kenya. Our Sri Lankan data came from Dussubieux The source of the South Indian data included two archaeological sites that appear to predate the current era. The West Indian data is from samples ranging in date from the ninth to nineteenth centuries CE obtained at Chaul, a port site south of present-day Mumbai. The African samples are from four sites in Kenya. One of these has dates that span from the tenth to eighteenth centuries CE, and the others postdate the tenth century and cluster between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries. When subjected to principal component analysis PCA , the compositions of these beads expressed in ppm of the elements and then standardized formed two clusters representative of the compositional features of most of the samples of each m-Na-Al subtype see blue and pink ovals of Fig. The majority of the Zanzibari, Sri Lankan, and South Indian beads form a fairly compact group that suggests they are closely related, but the numerous outliers from this core suggest that there may be other subtypes that have not yet been identified. The overlapping between the two subtypes is a consequence of samples that lie between the concentration ranges as reported by Dussubieux et al. The black oval delineates samples from Sri Lanka, while the gray dashed-dotted rectangle outlines the South Indian ones. The red dashed line includes all of the Zanzibar samples. The blue circle delineates the Dussubieux et al. Individual Zanzibar beads that do not fall comfortably within the parameters of either m-Na-Al 1 or 2 are identified by ID number and their relevant element concentrations and affinities are listed in Table 2. The PCA extracted five principal components, of which only the first two PC1 and PC2 were considered significant on the basis of the scree plot. Most of the Zanzibar beads red points of Fig. The analysis of variable loading Fig. The variable loadings of the second PCA component show that the positions of the single samples reported in Table 2 except UU, , , and are due mainly to the loading of the Al, Sr, and U variables. The blue and pink ovals of Fig. Therefore, the borderline samples UU, , , , , and and those just outside the border UU, , and may be part of the m-Na-Al 1 subtype. As Table 2 illustrates, none of the beads in the area of overlap between the two subtypes fit unequivocally into the m-Na-Al 2 category. Finally, although the PCA analysis represents a statistical synthesis of the concentration distributions of five elements, a detailed analysis of the data for the samples individually reported in Table 2 and illustrated in Fig. This underscores the limits of the Dussubieux et al. In concurrence with this observation, new research by Dussubieux on other Zanzibar beads has confirmed the difficulty of assigning beads of m-Na-Al glass from the East African coastal region to only subtypes 1 and 2 , personal communication. Unfortunately, due to their similarity, beads of the two m-Na-Al subtypes cannot be separated based on morphology. It is interesting, however, that the majority of the chemically unusual beads that do not fit comfortably in either category come from disturbed contexts. As Table 3 shows, 8 of the 13 beads were found in trench 10 contexts , , and —all of these are from the fill of a pit dug into the trench. Archaeological and associated chemical evidence indicates that one manufacturing center for this glass was located at Giribawa in Sri Lanka Bopearachchi , ; Dussubieux , but that site is dated between the third century BCE and the second century CE and is thus too early to have been the source of the Zanzibar glass. No other sites manufacturing this glass type have been located, but there likely were other such glassmaking centers in Sri Lanka; for example, Francis concluded that Mantai was both a glassmaking and beadmaking center. However, as Dussubieux and Gratuze , p. They were common at Mantai where Francis proposed they were made. It is noteworthy that this is the first time m-Na-Al 1 glass has been recorded in eastern or southern Africa, apart from two morphologically unusual beads: one from Ungwana on the Kenyan coast Dussubieux et al. Glass of the m-Na-Al 2 subtype is widely distributed in eastern and southern African sites, as well as at sites in Madagascar and India and beyond, dating from about the mid-tenth to seventeenth centuries CE Dussubieux et al. In East Africa, some reports indicate that this glass type appears in sites that have date ranges that include the ninth century Dussubieux and Gratuze , p. In addition, the earlier East African dating evidence is probably less secure than that for southern Africa. All available evidence indicates that m-Na-Al 2 glass was probably manufactured at a number of locations in India widely distributed from the Uttar Pradesh region southwards from a mineral soda known, at least in recent times, as reh Brill a , b ; Kanungo ; Sode and Kock It appears unlikely that any of the Zanzibar beads were made from this glass type. As Table 2 and Fig. In addition, the AMS dates for the trenches in which potential examples were recovered predate the tenth century, whereas this glass type has not been recorded earlier than the tenth century. The most important conclusion that can be drawn from the analysis of the m-Na-Al beads found in Zanzibar is the pronounced contrast between the prevalence of subtype 1 and probable absence of subtype 2 of this glass in the assemblage and the fact that virtually all the m-Na-Al glass from southern Africa belongs to subtype 2 Robertshaw et al. These differences can be explained by temporal parameters: subtype 1 glass, as has been mentioned, was produced up to but not beyond the tenth century CE Dussubieux et al. Two distinct types of glass were identified among the 26 samples fluxed with plant ash. The first type v-Na-Ca comprises 23 samples including the presumed glass weight that can be tentatively divided into two subtypes and two outliers, while the second v-Na-Al , which contains elevated levels of alumina, is represented by only three beads; these will be discussed separately. All of the 23 v-Na-Ca samples have relatively small quantities of alumina. Twelve of the beads, along with the blue and white glasses of the eye bead UU , and the glass weight, form a subtype, here designated A, characterized by medium concentrations of lime, while subtype B, characterized by higher concentrations of lime, is represented by seven beads plus the black base glass of the eye bead UU The distinction between the proposed subtypes is tentative. Lime and phosphorus pentoxide contents show quite good separation between the subtypes Fig. Plot of lime vs phosphorus pentoxide for the v-Na-Ca A and B samples. Measurements in parts per million. Subtype A includes 12 beads, the blue and white glasses of the eye bead UU and the glass weight but produced 17 analyses because three beads are multicolored and each color was tested; the multicolored beads are discussed more fully below. Colors that are found in subtype A beads include cobalt blue, blue-green colored with copper, white colored with tin and one colorless sample UU with a notable, if predictable, absence of any coloring agent. Among the blue-green beads, UU was pinched from a large tube with a large perforation and then reheated on a flat surface. FK is similar and may have been produced in the same manner. The remaining two, UU and UU, are smaller but still have large perforations. Their walls are very thin so the ends have deteriorated making it impossible to determine whether they were reheated at all. The colorless bead UU is uniformly rounded on both ends. Cobalt in glass is often associated with various elements incorporated in the raw cobalt-bearing materials. Gratuze et al. One of the three main cobalt mineral groups identified by Gratuze et al. The cobalt in the Zanzibar beads is correlated with zinc and copper but not with other elements; they do include variable amounts of lead 0. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of information on the chemistry of cobalt sources in the Middle East during the early Islamic period. Two of these beads are made of v-Na-Ca subtype A glass, while the third UU consists of a base glass assigned here to v-Na-Ca subtype B glass and eyes of blue and white glass that appear to be of subtype A. The fact that both v-Na-Ca subtypes appear to have been used in the manufacture of a single bead highlights the tentative nature of the identification of two subtypes; however, it has been shown that glass workshops in the early Islamic period sometimes used raw glass from different primary sources Freestone et al. Studies of these multicolored beads and others like them from sites in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Scandinavia have enabled their manufacture to be placed in a time frame roughly between the late eighth and mid-ninth centuries Wood, unpublished data. Two of these UU and UU are cobalt blue with white stripes that run parallel to the perforation. The third bead UU is known as a stratified eye bead see Fig. It is wound all others in the entire Zanzibar assemblage are drawn with a black body and eyes made of a circle of white glass topped by a smaller one of cobalt blue. All of these sites have eighth- to ninth-century components. As Fig. By contrast, the Chibuene eye beads differ in their alumina to lime ratios, while the al-Basra bead has less magnesia and potash than the Zanzibar and Thung Tuk specimens. The distinction between the Zanzibar eye bead and those from Thung Tuk on the one hand and the al-Basra eye bead on the other seems to be borne out by examination of the apparent coloring agents in the white glasses of these beads as well as of the blue and white striped beads from Unguja Ukuu and Tumbe, discussed next. The al-Basra white glasses, but not the others, are notable for their relatively high concentrations of lead and arsenic, as well as tin Table 4 , suggesting that the white color in the al-Basra glass might derive from a mixture of cassiterite and lead arsenate, whereas the others, including the Chibuene eye beads, seem to have been colored primarily with cassiterite. Moreover, with the exception of al-Basra, the quantities of arsenic, tin, and lead in the white glasses from the other sites are not correlated. The three data points for UU represent the three different colored glasses that were analyzed on this bead. The other beads in the figure also have multiple data points, each based on the analysis of a differently colored glass. Similar beads are also present at Thung Tuk. All these beads are also chemically very similar, with the exception of the blue glass of the Tumbe bead Table 5 and Fig. In all the beads, the blue color can be ascribed to additive levels of both copper and cobalt, while the white glass exhibits high levels of tin, corresponding to tin oxide used as a white opacifier. The ratios of lead and tin to arsenic are strikingly similar in the white glasses of UU and the Tumbe bead Table 4. Although all of these sites have eighth- to ninth-century components, this type of striped bead may also be present outside this time frame. Of the eight subtype B beads, five are an opaque brick-red glass that is filled with bubbles, giving the ends a sponge-like appearance see Fig. Two subtype B beads are translucent blue-green and large the more complete one measures 11 mm in diameter , and they were made by a process known as segmenting. Both the brick-red and blue-green subtype B beads were colored with high concentrations of copper. The final bead of this subtype comprises the black glass that forms the base of the eye bead UU discussed above. The origins of the increased concentrations of CaO in the subtype B glass are not entirely clear. Henderson , p. However, the lime content of some halophytic plants was insufficient to make Islamic glass, so a third primary raw material, such as feldspar which is rich in both calcium and alumina, could have been added along with the sand which, especially with desert and stream sands, is often low in calcium Duckworth et al. Unfortunately, our data cannot differentiate between potential calcium sources. The mean ratios between the lime, alumina, and phosphorus oxide contents in subtypes A and B are similar, but other oxides that characterize the ashes, such as sodium, potassium, and magnesium, are rather different. In the end, these differences cannot account for the differences in lime levels between the two subtypes, thus suggesting at the very least the use of ashes from different plants. African comparisons: There are two datasets comprising chemical compositions of beads of plant ash glass from the late first millennium CE that are appropriate for comparison with the Zanzibar v-Na-Ca subtypes. The first comprises the plant ash glass beads from the port of Chibuene in Mozambique where three subtypes of plant ash glass were identified Wood et al. The second comparative African dataset used here comprises the results of chemical analysis of 16 beads of the Zhizo series from various southern African sites Robertshaw et al. These Zhizo series beads are chemically very similar to those of the Chibuene v-Na 1 series. Table 6 presents the mean compositions of the major oxides and selected trace elements for the Zanzibar plant ash subtypes and the African comparative dataset. Perusal of this table and Fig. The second most distinctive glass is the Zanzibar subtype B glass with its high lime levels, as well as somewhat elevated levels of soda and chromium, though, as noted above, lime aside, it shows considerable compositional similarities to Zanzibar subtype A, as well as to the Chibuene v-Na 1 and Zhizo glasses. Chibuene v-Na 2 glass is also not entirely dissimilar to the other types, at least when the quantities of individual oxides are compared, though it has notably higher amounts of chromium, nickel, and zirconium and less rubidium. Chromium and nickel levels in the Chibuene v-Na 2 glass are highly correlated Wood et al. The question here is whether we can source either of the Zanzibar plant ash glass subtypes to any particular region within the Middle East. Henderson , pp. Al-Raqqa in Syria is the only primary plant ash glass manufacturing site of the late first millennium AD that has been thoroughly investigated and for which considerable compositional data are available Henderson et al. Henderson and colleagues identified three plant ash glass types types 1, 2, and 4 at al-Raqqa, with type 4 glasses varying considerably in composition because they were perhaps the products of experiments in the production process. Figures 11 and 12 compare some of the major oxide compositions of the Zanzibar plant ash subtypes with the al-Raqqa types. The Zanzibar plant ash glasses fall within the broad compositional range of al-Raqqa type 4 glasses based on their alumina and magnesia compositions Fig. Furthermore, a plot of lime and alumina concentrations in raw furnace glass from al-Raqqa Henderson , p. Looking further afield in the Middle East than al-Raqqa, Henderson , pp. This encourages us to suggest that the Zanzibar plant ash subtype B glasses most likely derive from the same Levantine region, though it is important to note that the Zanzibar subtype B glasses generally possess more alumina than do their Levantine counterparts, suggesting the use of sand rather than quartz as the silica source. We should also remember that the Levantine samples derive from raw glass and vessel glass rather than colored beads. It is tempting to look eastwards, to Iraq and Iran, for an origin for the Zanzibar subtype A glass. Figures 13 and 14 compare the Zanzibar plant ash subtypes with a variety of Iranian and Iraqi glasses of similar age or, in the case of the Sasanian glass, earlier. While the high lime and alumina concentrations of most of the Zanzibar subtype B glasses show that they are not a good match with these eastern Middle Eastern glasses, those of Zanzibar subtype A are a better fit, particularly perhaps with the Sasanian type 1 glasses. Freestone noted that glasses found to the east of the Euphrates have higher potash and magnesia concentrations than those to the west see also Rehren and Freestone : Fig. Note that one Sasanian type 1 sample with 8. In summary, we suggest that the Zanzibar plant ash subtype A glasses may have been made east of the Euphrates while those of subtype B more likely originate in the Levantine region. These ascriptions are tentative. More reliable sourcing of the glasses within the Middle East will require much more detailed investigation of both trace element and isotopic data. The two beads that are outliers UU and UU , which are made from v-Na-Ca glass but with rather different chemistries, remain to be discussed. UU is, in terms of its major oxides, broadly comparable to Zanzibar subtype B but includes more soda and less of the other oxides. It also exhibits some differences in trace element concentrations from the Zanzibar subtype B glasses, for example, the vanadium, zinc, silver, tin, and barium concentrations. Average REE patterns of the two outlier Zanzibar plant ash glass beads, compared with those of the Chibuene series Wood et al. UU has an unusual major oxide chemistry with low levels of both alumina and lime, which align the bead with the glass of the Chibuene series Wood et al. However, the trace element concentrations in UU show both similarities to and marked differences from those of that series, with, for example, similar concentrations of lime and zirconium but different quantities of alumina, chromium, and rubidium Fig. Wood et al. Subtypes A and B derive from very similar bedrock geology, whereas v-Na-Al is markedly different, notably with its large positive Eu anomaly, its lack of a negative Ce anomaly, and its overall higher concentrations of REE. Two of these v-Na-Al beads came from trench 11 in contexts and , which are made up of overburden mixed with modern intrusions, while the third, UU, is from trench 13 context , which is over half way down the trench depth. These beads have a chemistry that is somewhat related to that of the Mapungubwe Oblate and Zimbabwe series beads which are found at thirteenth- to fifteenth-century sites in southern Africa and Madagascar Robertshaw et al. Thus, based on our present knowledge of this glass type, these Zanzibar beads may represent an as yet unclassified variation of this glass type. It is relatively easy to separate the m-Na-Al and v-Na-Ca beads in these assemblages based on morphology. First, cobalt blue does not occur in m-Na-Al 1 glass Dussubieux et al. In addition, this type of glass is often filled with rows of small bubbles aligned parallel to the perforation. When these bubble rows are near the surface of the bead, they lead to the appearance of striations Fig. Drawn beads are generally made by cutting bead-length segments from a glass tube. This results in beads with sharp, even jagged, ends so they are normally reheated to round or smooth the ends. The most common way this was done during this period—especially with South Asian beads—was to place the beads in a large pan packed with ash or another medium to prevent them from sticking together, then they were reheated while stirring until the edges slumped. This resulted in beads with shapes that are more or less the same on both ends. All m-Na-Al beads were treated in this manner. In contrast, most of the Zanzibar v-Na-Ca beads were rounded in an unusual way: the cut tube segments were placed on a flat surface and then reheated for a short time resulting in beads that are somewhat flat on one end and slightly rounded on the other Fig. The effect can be subtle and difficult to see in a photograph since many of the beads were not reheated for long. Unguja Ukuu and Fukuchani tested glass beads. Beads in the top left panel are from Fukuchani, all the rest are from Unguja Ukuu and are grouped by color. As can be seen in the lowest center panel , UU is not a bead but probably a glass weight. Thus, based on color, bubbles in the glass, unusual end treatment, and shape, it has been possible to determine that 14 At Unguja Ukuu, only 36 4. Two main types of glass that date to the second half of the first millennium CE have been identified in the beads from Unguja Ukuu and Fukuchani. Based on bead distribution in trench 11 see Table 8 , which had the deepest stratigraphy 2. As can be seen, the three deepest, and thus earliest, contexts are made up almost entirely of m-Na-Al 1 beads. Of the m-Na-Al 1 beads in those contexts, are translucent blue-green. Juma : Table 7. Thus, it appears likely that m-Na-Al 1 beads are the earliest glass beads yet recognized on the East Coast. The second type of glass, whose beads probably arrived somewhat later than the m-Na-Al 1 beads but ended production at about the same time, is a plant ash glass v-Na-Ca subtype A that was made in the Middle East, possibly east of the Euphrates. The beads, however, may well have been made elsewhere since that region is not known for making drawn beads and this glass was widely traded in raw and cullet form Lankton and Dussubieux , p. However, given that m-Na-Al 1 beads from South Asia were being traded to Zanzibar, it would not be unreasonable to entertain the possibility that some of the v-Na-Ca beads could have been produced in that region or in Thailand, which was making beads from this glass and, in its role as a key link in east-west commerce at the time, was trading actively with Sri Lanka and India. The simple monochrome drawn v-Na-Ca beads that were briefly reheated on a flat surface, as found at Thung Tuk, Thailand, would be the most likely to fit this profile. The more complicated eye beads and striped beads may have been made in Thailand, as suggested by Francis , p. This glass was also made in the Middle East but possibly farther to the west. It is not known where the beads were produced but, apart from the segmented beads, the techniques used to produce them are the same as those of the cut or pinched and flat reheated v-Na-Ca subtype A beads, suggesting that they were all made in the same region. As has been noted Table 6 and Fig. Beads made of this glass type are rare and seem to have had a short life span. None have been found at any site in East Africa, including the Zanzibar sites in this study. Glass trade beads at Thabadimasego, Botswana: analytical results and some implications, in publication; Denbow et al. They were replaced by beads known as the Zhizo series made from a related glass, v-Na-Ca 1 Robertshaw et al. As has been shown Table 6 and Fig. Almost all Zhizo beads are simply made by cutting bead lengths from drawn glass tubes; they are not reheated so their ends remain fairly sharp and often rather ragged. They are never pinched, segmented, or decorated multicolored —characteristics that are found in Zanzibar subtype A beads. While the exact boundaries were not fixed, Barbara was the coast north of Mogadishu, Zanj southwards from there to the Rovuma River, and Sufala between the Rovuma and the Limpopo Trimingham , p. The bead evidence from Zanzibar and southern Africa suggests that the Zanj and Sufala coasts may have been linked to distinct trading systems in the late first millennium. Historical sources offer some support for the possibility that the Medieval period saw direct sailing to Sufala from the Persian Gulf region that avoided the East African ports apart from Qanbalu, a port that is thought to have been located on the island of Pemba Trimingham , pp. The anonymous tenth-century Authentic Tales of the Sea mentions voyages to Sufala in six different tales. Both gold and ivory were key attractions of southern Africa. Taken together, these sources provide some evidence that ships from Oman and the Persian Gulf sailed to southern Africa to trade for ivory and gold, among other goods. Given the continuity in beads involved in that trade during the period between the eighth and mid-tenth centuries, along with the near absence of those beads at East African sites, it would not be unreasonable to propose that this trading pattern existed throughout that time span. The trade of Sufala seems to have been well organized and, it is possible to argue, on a somewhat different basis from that of the ports further north on the Swahili coast. The absence or rarity of Chibuene and Zhizo series beads outside of southern Africa is also significant: had they been produced in South or Southeast Asia as is possible with both types of v-Na-Ca beads found in Zanzibar , one would expect that the traders who supplied those v-Na-Ca beads to the east coast would have carried Zhizo beads as well. Thus, one could propose that between the eighth and mid-tenth centuries, Zhizo series beads were being made by South Asian artisans somewhere in the greater Persian Gulf region using local glass and were then carried to southern Africa by ships from Oman and the Gulf. Another scenario, however, could be imagined in which South Asian artisans, who lived and worked in the region where the v-Na-Ca subtype A glass was being made, produced glass tubes in a variety of diameters and four basic colors cobalt blue, yellow, blue-green, and green which were then shipped to widespread destinations where they were made into beads based on local tastes and skills. In this case, Zhizo beads would have been cut from imported tubes at Chibuene, where the skills to reheat them to round the ends were not available or perhaps consumers in the region preferred unrounded beads. Possible evidence for this proposal is present in the Chibuene glass assemblage which includes a number of useless tube ends, tubes with no perforation and other potential beadmaking debris Wood et al. The Igbo Ukwu beads were ground flat after cutting MW personal observation , a process that could have easily been undertaken locally; in addition, it is rarely seen elsewhere with these types of beads. There is no physical evidence that the Zanzibar beads were worked at Unguja Ukuu or Fukuchani and in any case the variety of treatments found in those plant ash beads reheated on a flat surface, pinched from large tubes, segmented, decorated—and two subtypes of glass were involved suggests they were produced either at several different locations or at a sophisticated complex one. In addition, their similarity to beads found in Thailand and Sri Lanka, which both have ample evidence of sophisticated beadmaking, suggests that it is more likely that they were made in one of those regions rather than in Zanzibar. Although the greater Persian Gulf region cannot be ruled out as a source, beads of these types, apart from eye beads, are not common at port sites, such as Siraf, and are absent from Nishapur although it must be admitted that glass bead studies in this region are woefully limited. Like other types of material culture, including ceramics and diverse metal objects, the glass beads that reached Africa originated in a variety of far-flung regions of the Indian Ocean. That many of them were channeled through the Middle East is supported by both historical and archaeological evidence, although the possibility of some direct trade with South and Southeast Asia cannot be ruled out. This mirrors a key difference in the imported ceramic assemblages from Unguja Ukuu on Zanzibar and Chibuene on the southern African coast — Chinese ceramics are present, albeit in small quantities, at Unguja Ukuu, but are absent from Chibuene Sinclair ; Sinclair et al. Whether this reflects some input from direct trade to Zanzibar as opposed to further south, or whether it reflects different trading axes from the Middle East, remains to be determined. The possibility that agency on the part of African consumers may have played some role in the differences between the northern and southern sections of the east coast could be entertained for the East Coast, because traders from different regions appear to have been active there and the diverse types of beads, of different origins, that are found in assemblages from all periods support this possibility. Choice existed so could be exercised. Portuguese traders learned of this conservatism in the early sixteenth century when they tried to introduce European beads—no one would accept them, so the Portuguese and eventually other European traders were forced to buy beads from India for the southern African trade Wood et al. This pattern continued up to the late seventeenth century when European beads were finally accepted, partially because European beadmakers began to copy the Indian beads. Two major glass types are present at these Zanzibar sites: mineral-soda m-Na-Al and plant ash soda v-Na-Ca. This is the first time this glass subtype has been identified in East Africa or southern Africa. The fact that it was not produced after the tenth century CE confirms that the trade that brought the beads predates the second millennium. Most of the plant ash beads were made of glass v-Na-Ca subtype A produced in the Middle East, possibly east of the Euphrates. A smaller number of related beads v-Na-Ca subtype B were made of glass that may have been produced farther to the west. Based on method of manufacture and the presence of similar beads at other archaeological sites, however, it is possible that many of these beads were made in South or Southeast Asia. If this were indeed the case, they may well have arrived in East Africa via the same trade circuits as the m-Na-Al 1 beads. On the other hand, the beads found in southern Africa are likely to have come directly from the Persian Gulf region suggesting that during the latter part of the first millennium CE glass beads traded into East Africa and southern Africa arrived via two distinct trade networks. The patterns observed in the Zanzibar bead data, and the contrasts with southern African datasets, allow us to propose a few possible scenarios for the late first millennium bead trade on the eastern African coast. The patterns may reflect the existence of distinct trading axes between the Middle East and the two sections of the African eastern seaboard, rather than a simple extension of the East African trade down to the southern coast. Or it is possible that they reflect the involvement of Zanzibar in a degree of direct trade with southern Asia that did not extend to the southern African coast. The context of an archaeological object describes where in the excavation it was found—including the trench, the section in the trench, and the depth. This stratigraphic information can help date objects. For a discussion of artisans moving around the Indian Ocean, see Bellina , Horton , Ray , and Francis , pp. Antiquity — Article Google Scholar. J World Prehist — Afr Archaeol Rev — Arts Asiatiques — Google Scholar. Brill RH Chemical analyses of early glasses. Brill RH a The glassmakers of Firozabad and the glassmakers of Kapadwanj: two pilot video projects. Brill RH b Some thoughts on the chemistry and technology of Islamic glass. Yale University Press, New Haven, pp 25— Brill RH Chemical analyses. Carboni S The Mantai Glass. Linden Soft Verlag, Aichwald, pp — Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp — Chapter Google Scholar. PhD dissertation, Rice University, Houston. J Afr Archaeol — Azania — J Archaeol Sci — Archaeometry — In: Janssens K ed Modern methods for analysing archaeological and historical glass. Wiley, New Jersey, pp — In: Liritzis I, Stevenson C eds The dating and provenance of obsidian and ancient manufactured glasses. Int J Mass Spectrom — Francis P Jr The beads. Clarendon, Oxford. East West Publications, London. In: Nenna M-D ed Ateliers primaires et secondaires de verriers du second millinaire av. In: Kordas G ed Hyalos-Vitrum-glass. Athens, pp — Azania: Archaeol Res Afr — Henderson J Ancient glass: an interdisciplinary exploration. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Horton M Artisans, communities, and commodities: medieval exchanges between northwestern India and East Africa. Ars Orientalis — Ashgate, London. Blackwell, Oxford. Hourani GF Arab seafaring; expanded edition. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Juma A Unguja Ukuu on Zanzibar: an archaeological study of early urbanism. Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala. Kanungo AK A database of glass and glass beads in India. Man Environ — Lankton J, Dussubieux L Early glass in the Asian maritime trade: a review and an interpretation of compositional analyses. J Glas Stud — Les Prairies d'or, Paris. Ray HP The beginnings: the artisan and the merchant in early Gujarat, sixth-eleventh centuries. Ars Orientalis 34 34 — Journal of African Archaeology Monograph Series. Africa Magna Verlag, Frankfurt, pp — Adam, New Dehli. Sinclair P Chibuene—an early trading site in southern Mozambique. Paideuma — Sode T, Kock J Traditional raw glass production in northern India: the final stage of an ancient technology. Cultural synthesis in pre-colonial times. Africana Publishing Company, New York, pp — Anal Chim Acta —9. Wedepohl KH The composition of the continental crust. Geochim Cosmochim Acta — Wilmsen E, Denbow J Early villages at Tsodilo: the introduction of livestock, crops, and metalworking. University of the Witwatersrand. S Afr Humanities — S Afr Archaeol Bull — Download references. We would like to sincerely thank Jim Lankton for data on beads from Thung Tuk and Laure Dussubieux for m-Na-Al data as well as for comments on parts of the draft. Our paper was improved by comments from two anonymous referees. Marta , , Venezia, Italy. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Marilee Wood. Marilee Wood is a research associate at the University of the Witwatersrand and can be conctacted at the provided email address. Reprints and permissions. Wood, M. Zanzibar and Indian Ocean trade in the first millennium CE: the glass bead evidence. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 9 , — Download citation. Received : 15 June Accepted : 22 December Published : 20 January Issue Date : August Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript. Download PDF. Use our pre-submission checklist Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript. Introduction In and , the Sealinks Project www. Indian Ocean map with places mentioned in the text. Full size image. Map of Zanzibar, showing the location of Fukuchani and Unguja Ukuu. Material and methods Sites and samples Unguja Ukuu is located on a narrow coral-rag peninsula between a resource-rich bay and a small, shallow inlet. Results Online Resource 2 presents all the data from the analysis of 80 artifacts but including 84 analyses since several beads are multicolored and each color was tested comprising the contents of 52 elemental oxides. Discussion of the glass types and the beads produced Mineral-soda-alumina m-Na-Al glass Fifty-four Table 3 Trench and context of beads whose subtype designation is uncertain Full size table. Plot of chromium vs boron for the v-Na-Ca A and B samples. Correlation between zinc and cobalt in the blue Zanzibar beads. Table 4 Concentrations in ppm or weight percentage as shown and ratios of the coloring agents in the white glasses of the eye and striped beads Full size table. Table 5 Reduced compositions weight percentage of the striped beads. Reduced compositions are calculated following the method described by Brill , pp. Table 6 Major oxide and selected element compositions mean and standard deviations of late first millennium eastern and southern African plant ash glass types Full size table. Table 7 A comparison of the composition in weight percent and ppm of UU with the average of the v-Na 3 beads of the Chibuene series data from Wood et al. Bead types in the overall Zanzibar assemblages It is relatively easy to separate the m-Na-Al and v-Na-Ca beads in these assemblages based on morphology. Notes The context of an archaeological object describes where in the excavation it was found—including the trench, the section in the trench, and the depth. Acknowledgments We would like to sincerely thank Jim Lankton for data on beads from Thung Tuk and Laure Dussubieux for m-Na-Al data as well as for comments on parts of the draft. View author publications. Additional information Marilee Wood is a research associate at the University of the Witwatersrand and can be conctacted at the provided email address. Electronic supplementary material. About this article. Cite this article Wood, M. Copy to clipboard. Search Search by keyword or author Search. Navigation Find a journal Publish with us Track your research.

Zanzibar and Indian Ocean trade in the first millennium CE: the glass bead evidence

Zinjibar buy coke

The word 'Zanzibar' is derived from the old form 'Zengbar' which initially meant the Eastern Coast of Africa. It is probably a Persian word 'Zeng' means black and 'Bar' means land or region. The Arab version was Zinjibar. It is the Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, which comprises town main islands of Unguja Informally referred to as Zanzibar and its sister island Pemba as well as about fifty smaller islets. The land area of the two main islands is approximately 2, square kilometers of which Unguja is 1, square kilometers. Zanzibar Unguja is mainly a low lying island, with its highest point at metres above sea level. A white sandy beach encircles the island which is full of palm trees. Long beaches are found at the East and North Coast of Zanzibar island. Zanzibar's local people are an incredible mixture of ethnic backgrounds, indicative of her colourful history. Zanzibaris speak Kiswahili But English is also widely spoken , a language which is spoken extensively in East Africa. Many believe that the purest form is spoken in Zanzibar as it is the birth place of the language. Zanzibar is a few degrees South of the Equator and enjoys a tropical climate that is largely dominated by the Indian Ocean monsoon. December — March is generally hot and dry. April — Mid of June is wet because of the long rains. July — August is dry and breezy with little rainfall October - November is when the short rains appear. This is the one of the most popular excursion in Zanzibar it also called spice island as a nickname after a result of bring one of the world leading producers of the spice such as clore,nutmeg and cimamon in the 19th century. You are going smell and test different spice,learning how they formed and used,test exotic fruit and buy fresh spice ,spice tea coffee, soaps etc. Also you will testing herbs and tropical fruits such as cloves, lemongrass, nutmeg, cinamon, turmeric, vanilla,chili, black paper, jack fruits.. From the western side of Unguja island,the Stone Town of Zanzibar is an outstanding example of a Swahili trading town. This town further expanded under Arab,Indian and European influences,but retained its indigenous elements, to form an urban cultural unit unique to the region. Also retains its urban fabric and townscape virtually intact which has brought together and homogenized disparate elements of the cultures of Africa, the Arab region, India, and Europe over more than a millennium. Jozani forest its about 35km to South-East of Zanzibar town and the forest has an area of about 1, hectares. This is the only remaining natural forest in Unguja island where many years ago you was able to find antelops and leopards Now day the real columbus monkeys that are found in the forest are very friendly and like to the photographed. Other interesting features in the forest are the caastal evergreen bushland,saline grass land,mangroves and ground water forest. In the VILLAGE tours there are number of very interesting things to see and do including the traditional fishing village itself with resident speaking a specific Swahili dialect. Then the turtle aquarium with various species. A traditional boat yard and local market are amazing. At the end of the walk you can either relax on the sandy beaches or go swimming in the natural sea. Lunch and refreshments are arranged there to taste local delicious or international food. Normally this trip start after the breakfast where you will be driving from your hotel to Fumba village on the south west of Zanzibar where you will take the local boat, which is called Dhow, with other guests, and moving to the island. Visiting the islands and snorkeling at the coral reefs. This is a full day trip which includes equipment for snorkeling with guides i. This is the morning excursion, the most attraction of the Dolphin tour in Zanzibar is being able to swim close to the dolphins. Being very social themselves you can even get to play with them. This is the trip where we will drive you out to matemwe village where we wil take the wooden boat to close mnemba island about 20 metres to the island and doing the snorkling with a lot of fishes. The trip will include snorkeling equipments, mineral water, ice cold Soda and seasonal fruits. The word nakupenda means I love you,it's an Island which named by local people of Zanzibar. This is full day trip which starts from the morning until the evening after having seafood lunch,fruits and drinks. The guests will have a time to do snorkeling at the Coral places and have the fun walk around the sandbank taking a million pictures on a soft and white sand. Chumbe Island Coral Park Ltd. CHICOP is an award-winning private nature reserve that was developed from for the conservation and sustainable management of uninhabited Chumbe Island off Zanzibar. Driving your own quad bike, enjoy a rich off-road-itinerary into wild landscape through local farms, sugar cane plantation, quarries, spice trees and secular baobabs. We provide transport with a luxury cars,full air condition inside and bottle of water during arrival. Zanzibar Island. Did you know? Get Intouch. Spice Tour This is the one of the most popular excursion in Zanzibar it also called spice island as a nickname after a result of bring one of the world leading producers of the spice such as clore,nutmeg and cimamon in the 19th century. Jozani Forest Tour Jozani forest its about 35km to South-East of Zanzibar town and the forest has an area of about 1, hectares. Village Tour In the VILLAGE tours there are number of very interesting things to see and do including the traditional fishing village itself with resident speaking a specific Swahili dialect. Safari Blue Tour Normally this trip start after the breakfast where you will be driving from your hotel to Fumba village on the south west of Zanzibar where you will take the local boat, which is called Dhow, with other guests, and moving to the island. Dolphin Tour This is the morning excursion, the most attraction of the Dolphin tour in Zanzibar is being able to swim close to the dolphins. Mnemba Tour This is the trip where we will drive you out to matemwe village where we wil take the wooden boat to close mnemba island about 20 metres to the island and doing the snorkling with a lot of fishes. Nakupenda Trip The word nakupenda means I love you,it's an Island which named by local people of Zanzibar. Quad Bike Trip Driving your own quad bike, enjoy a rich off-road-itinerary into wild landscape through local farms, sugar cane plantation, quarries, spice trees and secular baobabs. 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Zinjibar buy coke