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Primitive Tribes #2 ~ African Tribes Traditions, Rituals And Ceremonies, Tribes Documentar
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
White Africans of European ancestry or Euro-Africans refers to people in Africa who can trace full, or partial ancestry to Europe. In 1989, there were an estimated 4.6 million people with European ancestry on the African continent.[1] Most are of Dutch, British, Portuguese, German, and French descent; and to a lesser extent there are also those who descended from Italians, Spaniards, and Greeks. The majority once lived along the Mediterranean coast or in Southern Africa.[1] The earliest permanent European communities in Africa were formed at the Cape of Good Hope;[2] Luanda, in Angola; São Tomé Island; and Santiago, Cape Verde[3] through the introduction of Portuguese and Dutch traders or military personnel. Other groups of white colonists arrived in newly-established European colonies in Africa. Before regional decolonisation, white Africans may have numbered up to 6 million persons[4] and were represented in every part of the continent.[5]
A voluntary exodus of colonists accompanied independence in most African nations because of the close economic and political linkages between colonial states and large sections of the white colonist business class; colonisation was primarily an economic programme built around extractive industries in mining and agriculture, buttressed by varying policies of racial separation or segregation between European and African colonial residents.[6] Portuguese Mozambicans, who numbered about 200,000 in 1975,[7] departed en masse because of economic policies directed against their wealth, much of which was generated by racialized colonial policies (land grabs, forced land tenancy such as the Thangata system in the Tea Estates in Malawi/Nyasaland, displacements of local populations such as the mass militarized removals of central region dwellers in central Malawi and so on);[8][9] they now number 82,000.[10] In Zimbabwe, recent white flight was spurred by an aggressive land reform programme introduced by late president Robert Mugabe and the parallel collapse of that country's economy which was also triggered by the land reform.[3] In Burundi, the local white community was expelled by the post-colonial government upon independence.[11]
The African country with the largest European descendant population both numerically and proportionally is South Africa, where White South Africans number over 4 million people (8.7% of the population).[12] Although white minorities no longer hold exclusive political power, some continue to retain key positions in industry and commercial agriculture in a number of African states.[13]
European colonisation patterns in Africa generally favoured territories with a substantial amount of land at least 910 metres (3,000 ft) above sea level, an annual rainfall of over 510 millimetres (20 in) but not exceeding 1,020 millimetres (40 in), and relative freedom from the Tsetse fly.[15] In contrast to Western and Central Africa, the milder, drier climates of Northern, Eastern, and Southern Africa thus attracted substantial numbers of permanent European immigrants.[16] A modest annual rainfall of under 1020 mm was considered especially suitable for the temperate farming activities to which many were accustomed.[15] Therefore, the first parts of Africa to be populated by Europeans were located at the northern and southern extremities of the continent; between these two extremes, disease and the tropical climate precluded most permanent European colonies until the late nineteenth century.[17] The discovery of valuable resources in Africa's interior and the introduction of quinine as a cure for malaria altered this longstanding trend, and a new wave of European colonists arrived on the continent between 1890 and 1918.[17]
Most European colonists granted land in African colonies cultivated cereal crops or raised cattle, which were far more popular among the immigrants rather than managing the tropical plantations aimed at producing export-oriented crops such as rubber and palm oil.[15] A direct consequence of this preference was that the territories with a rainfall exceeding 1020 mm developed strong plantation-based economies but produced almost no food beyond what was cultivated by small-scale indigenous producers; drier territories with large white farming communities became more self-sufficient in food production.[15] The latter often resulted in sharp friction between European colonists and black African tribes as they competed for land. By 1960, at least seven British, French, and Belgian colonies—in addition to the Union of South Africa—had passed legislation reserving a fixed percentage of land for white ownership.[15] This allowed colonists to legitimise their land seizures and began a process that had the ultimate consequence of commodifying land in colonial Africa.[18] Land distribution thus emerged as an extremely contentious issue in those territories with large numbers of permanent European colonists.[19] During the 1950s, black Africans owned about 13.7% of the land in South Africa and a little under 33% of the land in Southern Rhodesia.[19] An inevitable trend of this factor, exacerbated by high rates of population growth, was that large numbers of black farmers as well as their livestock began to be concentrated in increasingly overcrowded areas.[19]
Before 1914, colonial governments encouraged European colonisation on a grand scale, based on the assumption that this was a prerequisite to long-term development and economic growth.[20] The concept lost popularity when it became clear that multinational corporations financed by overseas capital, coupled with cheap African labour, were far more productive and efficient at building export-oriented economies for the benefit of the metropolitan powers.[20] During the Great Depression, locally owned, small-scale businesses managed by individual whites suffered immense losses attempting to compete with large commercial enterprises and the lower costs of black working-class labour (South Africa being the sole exception to the rule, as its white businesses and labour were heavily subsidised by the state).[20]
Unlike other former colonies such as those in the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand, Europeans and their descendants on the African continent never outnumbered the indigenous people; nevertheless, they found ways to consolidate power and exert a disproportionate influence on the administrative policies of their respective metropolitan countries.[16] Some lost their sense of identification with Europe and created their own nationalist movements, namely in South Africa and Rhodesia (now known as Zimbabwe).[16] Permanent white colonists were regarded as an increasing liability by colonial administrations as they sought to dominate their adopted African homelands.[20] They were also likely to involve the government in conflict with Africans, which required expensive military campaigns and inextricably damaged relations between the latter and the metropolitan powers.[20] This was a common trend throughout African colonies from the late eighteenth to early twentieth centuries. In the Dutch Cape Colony for instance, governor Joachim van Plettenberg demarcated the territory's boundaries around 1778 with approval from the Xhosa chiefdoms; the following year Dutch colonists violated the border and attacked the Xhosa, sparking the bloody Xhosa Wars.[21] Disputes between German colonists and the Matumbi and Ngoni peoples contributed significantly to the Maji Maji Rebellion of 1905–07.[22] During the same period, Colonial Kenya's European residents were largely responsible for provoking a revolt by the Masai.[20]
White colonists wielded enormous influence over many colonial administrations; for example, they often occupied influential positions on elected legislatures and held most of the senior administrative posts in the civil service.[14] Due to the relative poverty of most black Africans, whites of European ancestry also controlled the capital for development and dominated the import and export trade as well as commercial agriculture.[14] They often represented a disproportionate percentage of the skilled workforce due to much higher educational attainment. This was heightened by the discriminatory practices of the colonial authorities, which devoted more public funding to their education and technical training.[14][19] For example, in Tanganyika, the colonial authorities were estimated to have allocated up to twenty-six times more funding per year for white schools than black schools.[19] In most of colonial Africa, local whites sought employment with foreign companies, often in technical or managerial positions, or with the public service.[23] The exception were those colonies with large white farming populations, such as Kenya and Southern Rhodesia.[23] The white residents there were likelier to form their own business communities and invest heavily in the economies of their adopted homelands.[23]
The advent of global decolonisation ushered in a radical change of perspectives towards European colonisation of Africa. Metropolitan governments began to place more emphasis on their relations with the indigenous peoples rather than the progressively independent colonist populations.[20] In direct opposition to the growing tide of African nationalism, whites of European descent in colonies such as Algeria began to forge new nationalist identities of their own.[24] Attitudes towards rapid decolonisation among individual white African communities were hardened by fears of irresponsible or incompetent postcolonial governments, coupled to a parallel decline in public infrastructure, service delivery, and consequently, their own standards of living.[14]
On some occasions the granting of independence to African states under majority rule was influenced by the desire to preempt unilateral declarations of independence or secession attempts by white nationalists.[25] Nevertheless, Rhodesia's white minority did succeed in issuing its own declaration of independence in 1965 and later retain power up until 1979.[26] Less successful was an attempted coup d'état by white Mozambicans in 1974, which was forcibly crushed by Portuguese troops.[27][28] White rule in South Africa ended with the country's first non-racial elections in 1994.[29]
A white flight phenomenon accompanied regional decolonisation and to a lesser extent, the termination of white minority rule in Rhodesia and South Africa.[30] A considerable reverse exodus of former colonials returning to Western Europe occurred; because they had controlled key sectors of many African economies prior to independence, their abrupt departure often resulted in devastating economic repercussions for the emerging states.[31] Consequently, some African governments have made a concerted attempt to retain sizable white communities in the interests of preserving their capital and much-needed technical skills.[32]
A few colonies had no permanent white populations at all, and in such cases the European powers preferred to construct forts rather than large colonies accordingly. Transient administrators and soldiers were posted there initially as deterrents to rival governments attempting to effectuate treaties concerning land and other resources with local African populations.[18] Their numbers were sometimes bolstered by civilian expatriates employed as missionaries, public servants, or employees of large transnational companies with headquarters located aside the African continent.[23] Few of these expatriates came to immigrate permanently, and typically worked in the colonies for a short period before returning to Europe.[23] This made them less embedded in the economy and social structure, less interested in influencing local politics, and less likely to form cohesive communities than the colonist populations elsewhere.[23]
In most of colonial Africa, Europeans accounted for under 1% of the population,[38][33] except for the colonies in Northern and Southern Africa, which had the highest proportion of European colonists.[33]
There are 4.5 million white South Africans. Kenya, Zimbabwe, and Namibia all have white communities numbering in the tens of thousands more are scattered among Angola, Zambia, Mozambique, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and beyond. Many hold onto their British, Portuguese, German, French or Italian citizenships, but most have been on this continent all their lives.
— Christian Science Monitor correspondent Danna Harman, on Africa's white population of European descent in 2003.[39]
It is impossible to verify the number of white Africans of European ancestry, as a number of African nations do not publish census data on race or ethnic origin.[40] In 1989, the Encyclopædia Britannica editorial team estimated the size of Africa's total white population of European origin at 4.6 million, with the vast majority residing in coastal regions of North Africa or in the Republic of South Africa.[1]
The white population of Zimbabwe was much higher in the 1960s and 1970s (when the country was known as Rhodesia); about 296,000 in 1975.[41] This peak of around 4.3% of the population in 1975[42] dropped to possibly 120,000 in 1999, and had fallen to under 50,000 people by 2002.[43]
Further information: Afrikaner, Boer, and Cape Dutch
In the late sixteenth century, the Dutch East India Company (known more formally as the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC) began routinely searching for sites on the African continent where its trading fleets could obtain fresh water and other supplies while en route to the Orient.[44][45] Dutch ships began calling at the Cape of Good Hope as early as 1595, since the shoreline was not treacherous and fresh water could be easily obtained by landing parties without venturing too far inland.[46] In 1651, the company built a storage facility and watering station, which included a vegetable garden to resupply its passing ships, at the Cape.[46] Under the direction of Jan van Riebeeck, a small Dutch party also constructed a fort known as the Castle of Good Hope.[46] Van Riebeeck obtained permission to bring Dutch immigrants to the Cape, and resettle former company employees there as farmers.[46] The colonists were known as "vrijlieden", also denoted as vrijburgers free citizens), to differentiate them from bonded VOC employees still serving on contracts.[47] Since the primary purpose of the Cape colony at the time was to stock provisions for passing Dutch ships, the VOC offered grants of farmland to the vrijburgers on the condition they would cultivate crops for company warehouses.[48] The vrijburgers were granted tax-exempt status for twelve years and loaned all the necessary seeds and farming implements they requested.[49]
The VOC initially had strict requirements which the prospective vrijburgers had to fulfill: they were to be married Dutch citizens, of good character, and had to undertake to spend twenty years at the Cape.[48] During the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, however, many foreigners were amongst those who boarded ships in the Netherlands to settle in the Dutch sphere.[50] As a result, by 1691 a third of the vrijburger population of the fledgling colony was not ethnically Dutch. The heterogeneous European community included large numbers of German military recruits in the service of the VOC, as well as French Huguenot refugees driven into overseas exile by the Edict of Fontainebleau.[50][51] As the size of the vrijburger population expanded, the colonists began expanding deeper into the interior of Southern Africa; by 1800 the size of the fledgling Dutch Cape Colony was about 170,000 square kilometers; about six times the area of the Netherlands.[44]
The vast size of the colony made it almost impossible for the VOC to control the vrijburger population, and the colonists became increasingly independent.[46] Attempts by the company administration to reassert its authority and regulate the vrijburgers' activities was met with resistance.[52] Successive generations of colonists born in the colony became localised in their loyalties and national identity and regarded the colonial government with a mixture of apathy and suspicion.[52] In the early 1700s, this emerging class of people began identifying as Afrikaners, rather than Dutch subjects, after their adopted homeland.[53] Afrikaners who settled directly on the colony's frontiers were also known collectively as Boers, to describe their agricultural way of life.[46]
In 1769, the northward migration of Boers was met by a southward migration of Xhosa, a Bantu people which laid claim to the Cape region north of the Great Fish River.[46] This triggered a series of bloody frontier conflicts which raged until 1879, known as the Xhosa Wars.[46] Both the Boers and Xhosa organised raiding parties that frequently crossed the river and stole livestock from the other group.[46] Meanwhile, the VOC had been forced to declare bankruptcy and the Dutch government assumed direct responsibility for the Cape in 1794.[46] After Napoleon's occupation of the Netherlands during the Flanders Campaign, Great Britain captured the Cape Colony to prevent France from laying claim to its strategic harbour.[54] Although the Dutch authorities were permitted to administer the Cape again for a brief interlude between 1803 and 1806, the British launched another invasion of the colony as a result of political developments in
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