White Throated
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White Throated
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^ BirdLife International (2016). " Cinclus cinclus " . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016 : e.T22708156A131946814 . Retrieved 28 October 2020 .
^ Brewer, David (2001). Wrens, Dippers and Thrashers . Pica Press . ISBN 978-1-873403-95-2 .
^ "Norges nasjonalfugl fossekallen" (in Norwegian). Norsk Rikskringkasting AS . Retrieved 19 January 2011 .
^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, Volume 1 (in Latin) (10th ed.). Holmiae:Laurentii Salvii. p. 168.
^ Borkhausen (1797). Deutsche Fauna, oder, Kurzgefasste Naturgeschichte der Thiere Deutschlands. Erster Theil, Saugthiere und Vögel (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Varrentrapp und Wenner. p. 300.
^ Jobling, James A. (2010). Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names . London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4 .
^ Voelker, Gary (2002). "Molecular phylogenetics and the historical biogeography of dippers ( Cinclus )". Ibis . 144 (4): 577–584. doi : 10.1046/j.1474-919X.2002.00084.x .
^ Gill, Frank ; Donsker, David, eds. (2019). "Dippers, leafbirds, flowerpeckers, sunbirds" . World Bird List Version 9.1 . International Ornithologists' Union . Retrieved 4 February 2019 .
^ Cramp 1988 , p. 510.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cramp 1988 , p. 521.
^ Jump up to: a b Cramp 1988 , p. 519.
^ "European Longevity Records" . Euring . Retrieved 13 February 2019 .
^ "Longevity records for Britain & Ireland in 2017" . British Trust for Ornithology . Retrieved 13 February 2019 .
^ Moriarty, Christopher Down the Dodder Wolfhound Press Dublin 1991 pp.114-5
^ D'Arcy, Gordon Ireland's Lost Birds Four Courts Press Dublin 1999 p.19
^ Moriarty p.115
Cramp, Stanley ; et al., eds. (1988). " Cinclus cinclus Dipper". Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic . Volume V: Tyrant Flycatchers to Thrushes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 510–524. ISBN 978-0-19-857508-5 .
The white-throated dipper ( Cinclus cinclus ), also known as the European dipper or just dipper , is an aquatic passerine bird found in Europe , Middle East , Central Asia and the Indian Subcontinent . The species is divided into several subspecies , based primarily on colour differences, particularly of the pectoral band. The white-throated dipper is Norway 's national bird . [3]
The white-throated dipper was described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Sturnus cinclus . [4]
The current genus Cinclus was introduced by the German naturalist Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen in 1797. [5] The name cinclus is from the Ancient Greek word kinklos that was used to describe small tail-wagging birds that resided near water. [6] Of the five species now placed in the genus, a molecular genetic study has shown that the white-throated dipper is most closely related to the other Eurasian species, the brown dipper ( Cinclus pallasii ). [7]
There are 14 subspecies of which one is now extinct (with † ): [8]
The white-throated dipper is about 18 centimetres (7.1 in) long, rotund and short tailed. [9] The head of the adult ( gularis and aquaticus ) is brown, the back slate-grey mottled with black, looking black from a distance, and the wings and tail are brown. The throat and upper breast are white, followed by a band of warm chestnut which merges into black on the belly and flanks. The bill is almost black, the legs and irides brown. C. c. cinclus has a black belly band. The young are greyish brown and have no chestnut band.
The male has a sweet wren -like song. During courtship the male sings whilst he runs and postures, exhibiting his snowy breast, and when displaying he will take long and high flights, like those of the common kingfisher , accompanied by sharp metallic calls clink, clink , different from the normal zil .
The white-throated dipper is closely associated with swiftly running rivers and streams or the lakes into which these fall. It often perches bobbing spasmodically with its short tail uplifted on the rocks round which the water swirls and tumbles.
It acquired its name from these sudden dips, not from its diving habit, though it dives as well as walks into the water.
It flies rapidly and straight, its short wings whirring swiftly and without pauses or glides, calling a shrill zil, zil, zil . It will then either drop on the water and dive or plunge in with a small splash.
From a perch it will walk into the water and deliberately submerge, but there is no truth in the assertion that it can defy the laws of specific gravity and walk along the bottom. Undoubtedly when entering the water it grips with its strong feet, but the method of progression beneath the surface is by swimming, using the wings effectively for flying under water. It holds itself down by muscular exertion, with its head well down and its body oblique, its course beneath the surface often revealed by a line of rising bubbles.
In this way it secures its food, usually aquatic invertebrates including caddis worms and other aquatic insect larvae , beetles , Limnaea , Ancylus and other freshwater molluscs , and also fish and small amphibians . A favourite food is the small crustacean Gammarus , an amphipod shrimp. It also walks and runs on the banks and rocks seeking terrestrial invertebrates.
The winter habits of the dipper vary considerably and apparently individually. When the swift hill streams are frozen it is forced to descend to the lowlands and even visit the coasts, but some will remain if there is any open water.
The white-throated dippers first breed when they are one year old. They are monogamous and defend a territory. The nest is almost invariably built either very near or above water. It is often placed on a rocky ledge or in a cavity. Man-made structures such as bridges are also used. The nest consists of a dome shaped structure made of moss, grass stems and leaves with a side entrance within which is an inner cup made of stems, rootlets and hair. Both sexes build the main larger structure but the female builds the inner cup. The eggs are laid daily. The clutch can contain from 1-8 eggs but usually 4–5. The eggs are smooth and glossy white and are 26 mm × 18.7 mm (1.02 in × 0.74 in) with a calculated weight of 4.6 g (0.16 oz). They are incubated by the female beginning after the last or sometimes the penultimate egg has been laid. [10] The male will bring food to the incubating female. [11] The eggs hatch after around 16 days and then both parents feed the altricial and nidicolous nestlings. [10] For the first 12-13 days they are brooded by the female. Both parents remove the faecal sacs for the first 9 days. [11] The chicks fledge at around 22 days of age but the parents continue to feed their young for another week but feeding can continue for 18 days. If the female has started a second clutch then only the male parent feeds the fledglings. [10] One or two broods are reared, usually in the same nest. When disturbed, the young that hardly feathered will at once drop into the water and dive.
The maximum recorded age of a white-throated dipper from ring-recovery data is 10 years and 7 months for a bird ringed in Finland. [12] Within the United Kingdom and Ireland the maximum age is 8 years and 9 months for a bird ringed and recovered in County Laois , Ireland. [13]
The first detailed description of the white-throated dipper, dating from c.1183, is that of Gerald of Wales ( Giraldus Cambrensis) , the twelfth-century cleric, historian and traveller, in his book Topographia Hibernica , an account of his travels through Ireland in 1183–86. [14] Gerald, a keen observer of wildlife, describes the dipper accurately, but with his notorious tendency to believe anything he was told, which so often detracts from the value of his work, [15] states that it was an aberrant variety of the common kingfisher . The true kingfisher, according to Gerald, did not occur in Ireland in the 1180s, although it was widespread there by the eighteenth century. [16]
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Haemoproteus halcyonis
diurnal
active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
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White-throated kingfishers range from Turkey in the west to the Philippines in the east, including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Laos, Lebanon, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. ( Anderton and Rassmussen, 2005 ; "2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species", 2006 )
White-throated kingfishers are common in agricultural areas, swamps, marshes, near ponds, lakes, in parklands and in mangrove swamps. In India they seem to be less reliant on particular aquatic habitats than other kingfishers and can be found in dry decidious forests in addition to rice paddies, oil palm plantations, drainage ditches, gardens, fishponds and even beaches. Though they feed on fish, white-throated kingfishers are not deep divers and do not spend significant amounts of time underwater. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 ; Anderton and Rassmussen, 2005 )
White-throated kingfishers have thick, reddish-orange bills, red legs, and dark chocolate-colored heads, bellies, and shoulders. A brilliant white patch can be found on the throat and sometimes the breast. The wings and tail are bright blue with white patches on the primaries and black distal tips. The sexes appear similar. Juvenile birds are generally less brilliantly-colored with duskier bills and less brown on the wings. Young individuals may also sport a shoulder mark with extensive blue edging. White-throated kingfishers are the only South Asian kingfisher that is distinctly darker below than it is above. Adult birds weigh 65.5 to 81 grams. Basal metabolic rate has not been recorded. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 ; Anderton and Rassmussen, 2005 ; Wells, 1999 )
There are several recognized subspecies.
Halcyon smyrnensis smyrnensis , one of the two larger subspecies, ranges from the Gulf of Khambhat in India west to Saudi Arabia. This subspecies is bright blue-green above and has pale brown underparts.
Halcyon smyrnensis fusca is a resident in the whole of India and ranges upward into parts of Nepal and Sikkim. This subspecies also has a bright blue-green back, but its belly is more darkly chocolate-colored and it is smaller than H. smyrnensis smyrnensis .
Halcyon smyrnensis perpulchra is found in east Pakistan northern India, Bangladesh, Myannmar, Thailand, Malaysia, southeast China and Taiwan. This subspecies is on the smaller side and is more purplish-blue above than the previous two supspecies.
Halcyon smyrnensis saturatior is found on the Andaman Islands. This subspecies is also purplish-blue, but it is larger than H. smyrnensis perpulchra and it also bears a darker brown belly. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 ; Anderton and Rassmussen, 2005 ; Wells, 1999 )
Halcyon smyrnensis breeds seasonally and in monogamous pairs. According to the literature the formation of pairs has not been properly studied, but it is clear that one male and one female form a cooperative relationship to raise the young. It is not clear if this relationship seasonal or life-long. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 )
White-throated kingfishers breed yearly in pairs, but it is unclear if a mated pair will remain together for more than one season. Breeding occurs from January through August, with most activity during the period from April to July. Breeding begins earliest in India and Sri Lanka. Mating birds dig a 50 cm to 1 m deep burrow into a vertical embankment or wall. The tunnel usual slants upward and terminates in a wider nesting chamber. The floor of this chamber is not lined, but usually becomes scattered with feeding and waste detritus. Both parents share the incubation of their 3 to 7 eggs for an unspecified amount of time. Chicks are altricial and born blind. Once the chicks have hatched, both parents also participate in feeding and caring for the young. The fledging period is from 18 to 20 days.
Overall there is little data on reproductive behavior in this or other Asian Halcyon species. Time to hatching, time to independence, number of clutches each pair rears and age at sexual maturity are unclear for this species. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 ; Wells, 1999 )
Both parents participate in nest-building, clutch incubation, and the feeding and general rearing of the offspring. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 )
White-throated kingfisher average lifespan in or out of captivity is not recorded. Few white-throated kingfishers have been banded, but the longest interval between intitial banding and recapture is 5 years and six months. ( Wells, 1999 )
White-throated kingfishers live solitarily or in pairs during the breeding season. Each bird or pair of birds will establish a feeding territory and, for the most part, remain within that territory. There may be some seasonal movements, but there is a lack of clear data on the subject other than the fact that some Mediterranean populations winter on the isle of Cyprus. Each bird or pair usually stays very near to its permanent territory, however some portion of the population must wander as the birds have reached remote islands in the Indian Ocean and have been found on offshore oil rigs. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 ; "BirdGuides.Com", 1999 ; "2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species", 2006 ; Wells, 1999 )
White-throated kingfishers live alone or in pairs. In zones of greatest density birds may be separated by only 100 meters. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 ; Wells, 1999 )
White-throated Kingfishers are very vocal birds, their vocalizations being characterized as "a loud defiant rattling laugh." Breeding males are the most noted for their calls.. They have several calls which include a sharp repetition of high pitched KRICH-KRICH tones of 2-4 kHz at a rate of 2-4 notes per second. The particular song of the White-throated Kingfisher is a very loud descening trill (2-3 kHz), composed of speparate notes (10-11 per second), which trail off in pitch and volume.
During the mating season male White-throated Kingfishers accompany their nearling constant singing with a repeated brief display of the their white wing patches to intimidate potential rivals. While perched atop a tree, fencepost, or other visible station, the male will let out his distinctive call, then flap his wings swiftly several times parallel to the horizon.
The female White-throated Kingfisher also employs her wings for signalling during the breeding months. To signal that she is receptive, the female kingfisher approaches the male, partially opens her wings and performs a shivering motion while letting out a repetitive clicking call. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 ; Anderton and Rassmussen, 2005 )
White-throated kingfishers are carnivorous generalists that eat many organisms, including locusts, crickets, beetles, mantises, ants, termites, dragonflies, grasshoppers, Ocypode and Paratelphusa crabs , scorpions, centipedes, Mabuya and Calotes lizards, mice, frogs, small perching birds, and fish.
Individuals hunt by flying forth from an observation post over clear ground or water to seize prey.
Prey is often seized off the ground and then flown to the perch, where it is bludgeoned or stabbed before being swallowed. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 )
Specific predators of white-throated kingfishers have not been reported. It seems reasonable to assume that white-throated kingfishers are subject to predation by large birds of prey, and probably snakes and rodents while they are nesting.
White-throated kingfishers are medium-sized generalist predators that feed on a wide variety of small creatures and help to keep various populations in check. The literature does not list specific parasites of Halcyon smyrnensis , or other organisms that have special mutualistic relationships with this species. It seems possible that white-throated kingfishers are subject to parasitism by protists of the genus Plasmodium and it is almost certain that Haemoproteus halcyonis (a blood parasite of other Halcyon species) uses white-throated kingfishers as hosts. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 )
White-throated kingfishers eat domestic and agricultural pests, including both mammalian and insect pests. Like many other generalists, these birds help control the populations of small vertebrates and invertebrates that might otherwise do costly damage to human works and food supplies. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 )
White-throated kingfishers can often be found around fish drying racks and may become a nuisance at ornamental fish ponds and commercial hatcheries. Though they also contribute to controlling agricultural pests, they can be considered aquaculture pests. ( Ali and Ripley, 1983 )
White-throated kingfishers are listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List. Their large range and abundance in common habitats suggests they are not at current conservation risk. ( "2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species", 2006 )
Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web.
John McCallen (author), Stanford University, Terry Root (editor, instructor), Stanford University.
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth/hatching. In birds, naked and helpless after hatching.
Referring to an animal that lives in trees; tree-climbing.
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
a wetland area rich in accumulated plant material and with acidic soils surrounding a body of open water. Bogs have a flora dominated by sedges, heaths, and sphagnum.
areas with salty water, usually in coastal marshes and estuaries.
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
an area where a freshwater river meets the ocean and tidal influences result in fluctuations in salinity.
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.
mainly lives in water that is not salty.
An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
marshes are wetland areas often dominated by grasses and reeds.
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
This terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains, either without vegetation or covered by low, tundra-like vegetation.
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
Referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody (usually, but not always, a river or stream).
mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.
scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.
breeding is confined to a particular season
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
living in residential areas on the outskirts of large cities or towns.
a wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water, often dominated by woody vegetation.
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 2006. "2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species"
(On-line).
Accessed
May 13, 2007
at http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/47716/all .
BirdGuides. 1999. "BirdGuides.Com"
(On-line).
Accessed
May 13, 2007
at http://www.birdguides.com/html/vidlib/species/Halcyon_smyrnensis.htm# .
Ali, S., S. Ripley. 1983. Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan Vol. 4 . New York: Oxford University Press.
Anderton, J., P. Rassmussen. 2005. Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Vols. 1 and 2 . Barcelona: Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions.
Wells, D. 1999. The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula Vol. I . Bath: Academic Press.
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McCallen, J. 2007. "Halcyon smyrnensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed March 06, 2021 at https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Halcyon_smyrnensis/
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