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Drug Abuse Adolescent Students. In recent years, the prevalence of drug abuse has increased throughout the world. On an annual basis, drugs such as heroin, cocaine, and so on cause the deaths of , people worldwide; drug abuse also leads to the disintegration of families 1. Furthermore, it imposes heavy economic and social costs through its effects on human health and increased crime and death in community; thus, it has become a major threat to society 2. Moreover, young people tend to be most at risk for drug abuse 3. As a developing country, Iran is currently experiencing major changes at different economic and cultural levels. Along with all these changes, the population is growing, and the number of young people is increasing. Alarm bells are going off as new studies show the high prevalence of addiction and risky behaviors in the Iranian youth population 4. Drug abuse among youths increases the risk of problems related to their well-being and health, resulting in an increased risk of injury and death from interpersonal violence, road accidents, risky sexual behaviors, unintended pregnancy, diseases such as acquired immune deficiency syndrome AIDS , and academic problems. Therefore, a survey to determine the causes of drug abuse among youths and how to prevent them is crucial 5. Preventive science suggests that negative health outcomes resulting from substance abuse can be prevented by reducing risk factors and enhancing protective factors 6. Prevention of substance abuse among adolescents requires awareness of characteristics that place youth at risk and targeting risk factors that are modifiable. Many studies have attempted to identify risk factors associated with adolescent drug and alcohol usage 7. This investigation was a cross-sectional study with a sample of university students who were selected using self-weighted stratified random sampling at the Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Northwest Iran. The information collection tool was a questionnaire. Research data were analyzed using the SPSS 19 software program, employing the descriptive and inferential statistical methods. The results showed that the mean age of the participants for both sexes was Among effective individual factors, strategies for emotional stress, loneliness and anxiety, curiosity, and rapid irritability were emphasized by the students. Some studies have confirmed the relationship between individual factors like depressive mood and substance use 8. The students also perceived that parental misuse of drugs and parental disagreements, as family factors, had a major role in promoting drug abuse among youths. The results of one study by Velleman et al. In addition to some individual and family factors, participants emphasized the impact of peers as a social factor in increasing the likelihood of drug abuse among youths. The results of Brook et al. In sum, it is essential to consider the factors described above when designing educational and counseling interventions to prevent drug abuse in the population, particularly among adolescents and youths. It is recommended to focus on changing the knowledge and attitudes of youths about the adverse effects of drug abuse on their health using appropriate educational and counseling programs. World development indicators Washington D. C: World Bank Publications; Njuho P, Davids A. Extent and influence of recreational drug use on men and women aged 15 years and older in South Africa. Secondary School Students, Raghibi M. Examining high risk behaviors among students of Zahedan Universities. Injury risk among medically identified alcohol and drug abusers. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. Promoting science-based prevention in communities. Addict Behav. Indian J Med Res. Longitudinal study of co-occurring psychiatric disorders and substance use. The role of the family in preventing and intervening with substance use and misuse: a comprehensive review of family interventions, with a focus on young people. Drug Alcohol Rev. Predictors of drug use among South African adolescents. J Adolesc Health. We use cookies to provide you with the best possible experience. They also allow us to analyze user behavior in order to constantly improve the website for you. References 1. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4. Leave a comment here:. Cookie Setting We use cookies to provide you with the best possible experience.

Age- and gender-specific acute poisoning with drugs and medications affecting nervous system

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Introduction: We aimed to assess quality of life related to oral health in narcotic or stimulant users those were referred to maintenance methadone therapy MMT centers in Ahvaz City, Iran. Methods: It was a cross-sectional study based on exploratory approach which has conducted on narcotic and stimulant users in Ahvaz city; during 15th May till September Data was selected by available non-random sampling method. The data collection tools included the demographic variables and the standard OHIP questionnaires. All tests were used as descriptive statistics, Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests, independent t -test, one-way analysis of variance. P -values of less than 0. Results: The mean and standard deviation of the participants' age was The quality-of-life scores related to oral health were totally Conclusion: Quality of life related to OHIP was more unfavorable in stimulant users than narcotic users. So, policy makers and authorities are required to focus their interventions and research programs to improve health-related quality of life in users, especially stimulant. Use of addictive substances is among the most challenging and complex health problems leading to a wide range of cardiovascular, mental and psychological, metabolic, endocrine, and infectious disorders 1. Addiction to new drugs and industrial substances not only gives rise to many social and economic problems, but also causes damage to oral health 2. Opioids, as the most commonly used drug in Iran, include opium, syrup, heroin, and codeine used orally, by inhalation, or by injection. Other substances used in Iran include cannabis from the cannabis group , stimulants such as methylphenidate under the brand name of Ritalin from the amphetamine group , ecstasy from the amphetamine group , as well as cocaine and LSD from the hallucinogenic group 2. The use of narcotics or stimulants causes dry mouth or xerostomia, which in turn reduces the saliva pH and increases the formation of plaque and dental plaque. All these factors increase the incidence of tooth decay and periodontal disease 1. Moreover, narcotic and stimulant addiction can increase the tendency to intake simple sugars, which is an effective factor in causing caries and bruxism and increasing tooth sensitivity and necrotic gingivitis 3. Given that narcotic or stimulant addiction reduces motivation and self-confidence, addicts and those treated with methadone have lower rates of oral hygiene than non-addicts 4. Mental problems such as depression caused by drug addiction can eventually lead to neglect oral care and follow-up of dental treatment except in emergencies 5 , 6. Health-related quality of life is specifically associated with quality of life in relation to health and disease, which is a multidimensional concept. Oral health quality of life is one of these dimensions since oral diseases have been proven to affect the quality of life 1. Oral health-related quality of life is defined as an individual's personal assessment of the effects of functional, physical, and social factors as well as experience of oral pain and discomfort on different aspects of their life 7. Given the role that oral conditions play in people's social relations, appearance, self-confidence, as well as speaking, chewing, tasting, and swallowing processes, they affect one's pleasure experienced from life. Therefore, the status of oral health-related quality of life affects people's lives in both physical and mental dimensions 8. The seriousness and importance of dental problems in treating substance abusers necessitate establishment of an accessible dental care program. For example, the toothache interfering with the process of addiction treatment may cause relapse in addicts. In addition, poor appearance and improper functioning of the dental problems can cause isolation and non-compliance with the treatment and care process 9. So far, few studies were conducted on oral health and its related quality of life among the addicts worldwide 10 — 12 and in Iranian cities of Yazd, Mashhad, Isfahan, and Tehran 13 — As they noted, stimulants and morphine were the most commonly used drug among women and men, respectively Furthermore, the oral and dental treatment needs of the addicted population are wide and should be followed up 14 , Akbari et al. In this regard and since no research has ever investigated oral health status related to narcotic and stimulant abuse in Ahvaz City, the present study was conducted. The aim was to determine the quality of life related to oral health of narcotic and stimulant addicts who referred to maintenance methadone therapy MMT centers in Ahvaz City in It was a cross-sectional study based on exploratory approach which has carried out among narcotic and stimulants users who referred to MMT centers using available non-random sampling method in Ahvaz City during 15th May till September The cluster sampling method was conducted from the MMT centers in the east and west of Ahvaz. From each cluster, nine centers were randomly selected. In each center, available sampling method was applied and eligible patients who referred to the MMT centers entered the study. Initially, the participants were explained about the research goal and process. Followed by obtaining informed consent forms, the researcher completed the questionnaires for each participant. Inclusion criteria were having satisfaction to participate in the study, 18 years of age and older, as well as ability to communicate and answer the questions. Exclusion criteria included unwillingness to continue cooperation at any stage of the study and incomplete questionnaires. The participants provided answers to the questionnaire items, which were facilitated or completed by the researcher or the patient's companions if necessary. The study tools included a questionnaire of demographic and contextual variables containing information such as age, gender, education, marriage, number of children, employment, life partners, economic status, insurance status, underlying disease, toothbrush and toothpaste use status, last dentist visit, and number of missing teeth. Furthermore, the standard questionnaire of quality of life related to OHIP was administrated, which was designed to measure the effects of oral disorders on people's health based on the respondents' self-judgment. This questionnaire was translated into Persian by Motallebnejad et al. This questionnaire investigates seven dimensions of functional limitation, physical pain, mental distress, physical disability, mental disability, social disability, and physical disability. The minimum and maximum attainable scores of the questionnaire are 14 and 70, respectively, so that greater scores indicate higher quality of life related to oral health In the study by Navabi et al. In the present study, Cronbach's alpha coefficient was calculated and showed a good result for all dimensions Functional limitations 0. Validity of instrumentation with the exploratory agent approach was acceptable for the opioid group In order to observe ethical considerations, participants were ensured about confidentiality of information. To this end, all questionnaires were coded. Moreover, the participants were clearly explained about the study objectives and finally, those who were willing to participate in the study were surveyed. Descriptive statistics were applied to describe characteristics of the participants, central indices, mean dispersion, and standard deviation were used. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was also applied to evaluate distribution of data, while independent t -test and one-way analysis of variance were run to determine the relationship between variables. The mean age of addicts who referred to addiction treatment centers in Ahvaz was Table 1 represents other demographic characteristics of the participants along with the relationship of these characteristics with the mean quality of life related to oral health. Table 1. Relationship between quality of life related to oral health and variables of study. The mean scores of qualities of life related to oral health and its dimensions were also determined based on the type of substance used; i. Table 2. Mean scores of qualities of life related to oral health of addicts wise. In other words, the mean quality of life related to oral health was higher in narcotic addicts than stimulant users. Later, intensity of the relationship was examined between the dimensions of oral health-related quality of life and the overall score of OHIP in terms of the substance type. Figures 1 — 3 illustrate the theoretical model obtained. Figure 1. Status and severity of the relationship between the scores in the dimensions of OHIP scale and the total score of quality of life related to oral health in stimulant addicts. Figure 2. Status and severity of the relationship between scores in the dimensions of OHIP scale and the total score of quality of life related to oral health in narcotic user. Figure 3. Status and severity of the relationship between scores in the dimensions of OHIP scale and the total score of quality of life related to oral health in narcotic and stimulant users. The present study aimed at evaluating the quality of life related to oral health in patients who referred to MMT centers. The findings showed that the quality of life associated with oral health was significantly lower in people who use stimulants than narcotics. Although this rate of discrepancy was not severe, a significant difference was observed between scores of the two groups of drug abusers in the areas of mental disability, mental distress, and physical disability. More specifically, the effect of oral problems caused by using stimulants was higher on dimensions of quality of life, such as distraction, stress, peace disturbance, confusion in group, life dissatisfaction, and inability to perform activities. In other words, stimulants affect mental health and quality of life related to oral health negatively. Consistent with these findings, Nazemi et al. Our findings on Figure 1 also corroborate this point. According to Figure 2 , in addicts who use narcotics, physical disability was most associated with quality of life related to health. These results confirm the findings reported in the literature indicating that the type of substances applied affect the status of oral health indicators This finding can be justified by mentioning that the most common oral lesions caused by using stimulants include dry mouth 16 , 24 , 25 , spongy gingiva, and erythematosus with margin 16 that plays the most important role in the decline of their oral health Islami et al. In contrast, missing teeth and caries had a significant relationship with drug abuse Generalized pigmentation was observed only in methamphetamine users. According to the literature, the duration of drug withdrawal was significantly associated with the incidence of oral lesions, so that less pigmented lesions were observed in addicts who have quit their addiction even for 1 month. In other words, increased duration of withdrawal improved the pink color, firmness, and stippled knife edge margin of the gum Eslami et al. This pattern change can explain higher incidence of oral health-related psychological problems followed by using stimulants. In this regard, many other factors may be influential, including the effect of addiction treatment methods, such as methadone therapy and withdrawal duration A study was investigated amphetamine-dependent people and found that they intook more sugary foods, crumbs instead of main meals , and drank cranberry drinks compared with the healthy individuals. Drug addicts believed that substance use reduced their appetite and increased their cravings for sugar In the present study, only one fourth of those who referred to the substance abuse centers had been visited by dental professionals during the past year and a significant percentage of participants reported lack of a history of visits to dentists over the last 3 years. In Boston, about half of men and women who were addicted to drugs had more than a year since their last dental visit or were unable to recall the time of their last visit According to the results of other studies, it seems that referring to dentists to receive educational and medical services is low among drug addicts around the world. By comparing the results of this study with those reported in the literature, it can be claimed that the type of substance used by addicts is probably a more decisive factor than other personal variables in terms of the quality of life related to oral health. This finding can be justified by mentioning that quality of life related to oral health showed no significant difference not only among different levels of age, education, employment, economic status, marriage, and chronic illness, but also in other underlying factors such as a history of dental visits or the use of toothbrushes. Such discrepancy in the findings may be attributed to the sample size or the participants' characteristics since they were selected among patients who referred to MMT centers through available sampling method. Therefore, findings of the study are not generalizable to the population. In the studies by Shekarchizadeh et al. This finding is in contrary to the findings of the present study. Given that the participants of the above-mentioned studies included women, retired, or elderlies of different cities, differences in the results can be attributed to diversity in their nutritional, environmental, cultural, or genetic factors. However, results of the studies by Akbari 13 , Khabazian 32 , Gholami 31 , and Khatmi Nasab 33 are consistent with our findings in reporting that age and education had no relationship with quality of life related to oral health 13 , 31 — In this study, the total score of the oral health-related quality of life was Considering that these mean scores were received from the addicts who referred to addiction treatment centers, our findings cannot be representative of all addicts in Ahvaz. Moreover, substance use rates are naturally higher among the large population of addicts who are homeless and sleep on the street. As a result, future researchers are recommended to investigate addicts who are not in medical centers to provide a more comprehensive viewpoint in this area. Due to the cross-sectional nature of this study, some limitations existed in reporting the definitive causal relationship between the studied variables. Furthermore, this study did not investigate addicts under treatment due to specific problems in accessing them. Based on the findings, the quality of life index related to oral health is more unfavorable in stimulant users than narcotic users. Therefore, authorities are recommended to focus their interventions and research programs to improve health-related quality of life in addicts, especially stimulant users. The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences of Ethics Committee. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements. MC was principal investigators of the study. MC and HM were advisors of the study and performed the statistical analysis. FS was collected the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors contributed to the design, data analysis, assisted in the preparation of the final version of the manuscript, read, and approved the final version of the manuscript. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. The participants as well as the officials of the University of Medical Sciences and Methadone Therapy Centers in Ahvaz are appreciated for their cooperation in the present study. Health consequences of illegal drug use. Curr Opin Psychiatry. The poor oral health status of former heroin users treated with methadone in a Chinese city. Med Sci Monit. Mokri A. Brief overview of the status of drug abuse in Iran. Arch Iran Med. Google Scholar. Brondani M, Park PE. Methadone and oral health — a brief review. J Dent Hygiene. PubMed Abstract Google Scholar. Depression among needle exchange program and methadone maintenance clients. J Subst Abuse Treat. Terry D. Oral effect of drug abuse. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. Basic issues concerning health-related quality of life. Cent European J Urol. Oral health of drug abusers: a review of health effects and care. Iran J Public Health. Assessing quality of life using the oral health impact profile OHIP in subjects with and without orthodontic treatment need in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. J Clin Diagno Res. Oral health status and saliva characteristics of drug user at the rehabilitation center in Makassar. Sys Rev Pharmacy. Oral and dental health of Italian drug addicted in methadone treatment. Oral Sci Int. Prevalence of oral and dental diseases and oral hygiene practices among illicit drug abusers. J Alcohol Drug Depend. Akbari M. Evaluation of oral health status and dental need assessment in narcotic drug abusers. J Mash Dent Sch. Kheirollahi Khatereh. Evaluation of oral health indices in people referring to outpatient addiction treatment centers in Yazd in J Res Dent Sci. Ghane Mehrdad. Oral health behavior of in-treatment female drug addicts in Tehran. Med-Tehran Univ Med Sci. A survey on the pattern of consumption and oral manifestations of a group of addicts in Tehran in Iranian J Ageing. Pattern of drug abuse in addicts self-referred drug rehabilitation centers in Khuzestan province - Iran, — Archiwum medycyny sadowej i kryminologii. Risky behaviors of injecting drug users IDUs referred to addiction rehabilitation centers in Khuzestan Province in J Health Allied Sci. Assessment of oral health status and oral health—related quality of life in thalassemia major patients. J Mazandaran Univ Med Sci. Validation of a persian of the oral health impact profile OHIP Iranian J Publ Health. Evaluation of oral health and psychological health related quality of life in patient with temporomandibular disorders. J Isfahan Dent Sch. O'Sullivan EM. Community Dent Health. Smit DA, Naidoo S. Methamphetamine abuse: oral symptoms and dental treatment needs. S Afr Dent J. Orodental manifestations in methamphetamine users refereeing to oral medicine department, and their dental considerations. J Urmia Univ Med Sci. Association between tooth loss and opium addiction: results of a community-based study on 5, adult individuals in South East of Iran in A diet promoting sugar dependency causes behavioral cross-sensitization to a low dose of amphetamine. Evaluation of the periodontal status among the institutionalized Iranian elderly supervised by Behzisti Organization in Tehran J Res Dental Sci. Evaluation of oral health-related quality of life among patients with malocclusion. Social participation, barriers, and related factors in older people in Tehran. J Health Promotion Manag. Effect of non-surgical periodontal treatment on oral health related quality of life. Evaluation of the effect of non-surgical periodontal therapy on the quality of life associated with oral health in patients with periodontitis and gingivitis referred to periodontology department of Yazd dental school. The study of oral health status and its related quality of life in elderly people supported by welfare organization in ardabil city. J Health Care. The oral health of streetrecruited injecting drug users: prevalence and correlates of problems. Keywords: quality of life related to oral health, addict, narcotics, stimulants, quality of life. Public Health The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s and the copyright owner s are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Top bar navigation. About us About us. Sections Sections. About journal About journal. Article types Author guidelines Editor guidelines Publishing fees Submission checklist Contact editorial office. Public Health , 20 May Public Health Education and Promotion. Introduction Use of addictive substances is among the most challenging and complex health problems leading to a wide range of cardiovascular, mental and psychological, metabolic, endocrine, and infectious disorders 1. Methods Participants and Methodology It was a cross-sectional study based on exploratory approach which has carried out among narcotic and stimulants users who referred to MMT centers using available non-random sampling method in Ahvaz City during 15th May till September Ethical Considerations In order to observe ethical considerations, participants were ensured about confidentiality of information. Results The mean age of addicts who referred to addiction treatment centers in Ahvaz was

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