Urmia buy cocaine

__________________________

📍 Verified store!

📍 Guarantees! Quality! Reviews!

__________________________

▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼

▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲

Urmia buy cocaine

Either your web browser doesn't support Javascript or it is currently turned off. In the latter case, please turn on Javascript support in your web browser and reload this page. Refer to the copyright information in the article for licensing details. Free full text in Europe PMC. Drugs of abuse, such as cocaine, affect different brain regions and lead to pathological memories. These abnormal memories may occur due to changes in synaptic transmissions or variations in synaptic properties of neurons. It has been shown that cocaine inhibits delayed rectifying potassium currents in affected brain regions and can create pathological memories. This study investigates how the change in the conductance of delayed rectifying potassium channels can affect the produced action potentials using a computational model. In the simulations, by changing the delayed rectifying potassium conductance bifurcation diagram is calculated. By decreasing the potassium current for a fixed stimulatory signal, burst-type action potentials can be generated. In the following and with a further reduction of potassium conductance, produced action potentials exhibit non-linear and even chaotic behaviors. Results show that for a specific range of potassium conductance, a chaotic regime emerges in produced action potentials. These chaotic oscillations may play a role in inducing abnormal memories. Drugs of abuse such as cocaine can manipulate brain circuits and may form some pathological memories. These memories can lead to long-term addiction. Furthermore, these drugs also can have toxic effects on the cells. Researchers are looking for the mechanisms that can lead to abnormal memories and toxic effects of drugs. It seems that an efficient mechanism that can be used by drugs of abuse is the manipulation of potassium currents in the affected cells. Here, in a computational model, we have shown that changes in the conductance of delayed rectifying potassium channels can lead to nonlinear and even chaotic behaviors in the produced action potentials. These behaviors might have a role in drug toxic effects. Addiction is a chronic disease that has various negative consequences. Cocaine consumption is one of the pervasive forms of addiction. The use of drugs, such as cocaine, can lead to maladaptive behavioral changes. Some researchers consider that drugs of abuse can form a pathological memory, called the memory of addiction Boening ; Kelley ; Nestler, Among the involvement of different brain regions in the addiction process, the hippocampus has an integral role in forming addiction memories and triggering relapse during withdrawal times Caffino, et al. Meanwhile, the missing issue is the role of potassium currents in changing cell excitabilities. Cocaine consumption provokes action potential bursts in neurons Chen, et al. So, based on these observations, we want to computationally investigate potassium current reduction affects the produced action potentials in the hippocampus. This research can reveal new dimensions of the formation of cellular addiction. In the next section, the implemented computational model is introduced. Then the simulation results are presented, and, finally, potential applications of the proposed model are discussed. The equation denoting voltage variation of the neuron with ionic current equations is as follows:. Persistent sodium current can be described by the following equation Golomb, et al. The delayed rectifier potassium current I Kdr can be represented by the following equations Golomb, et al. The A-type potassium current I A can be demonstrated by the following equations Golomb, et al. The muscarinic-sensitive potassium current I m is denoted by the below equation Golomb, et al. The High-voltage calcium current I Ca can be shown by the following equation Golomb, et al. The fast calcium-activated potassium current I C is described by the following equation Golomb, et al. The leak current I L can be represented by this formula Golomb, et al. The following formula can describe the activation function of gating variables in the equations:. Simulation results are presented in this section. All simulations have been performed in Matlab a software. A stimulatory signal assumed to be the glutamate with an amplitude of 0. The stimulatory signal is shown in Figure 1. Since cocaine dose-dependently attenuates the potassium current in empirical observations Chen, et al. Here, by changing the conductance, the peaks of the action potentials are calculated. Between 2 to 8 values of the delayed rectifier potassium conductance g Kdr , the model has multi-stability, and the voltage has several peak values. These multi-peaks may represent a chaotic behavior. Further decrease of the conductance from 2 or increase of the conductance from 8 leads to semi-stable peak values for generated action potentials. The peak values of the generated action potentials for different sets of g kde bifurcation diagram. For further analysis, action potentials for different values of gkdr and their related phase spaces are calculated and represented through Figures 3 — 7. It can be seen that regular spiking patterns exist, and reconstructed space denotes a limit cycle. The left panel illustrates the produced action potentials, and the right panel the related phase space. By increasing the conductance to 1 Figure 4. The produced action potentials follow the frequency of the stimulatory signal. Furthermore, the phase space demonstrates a normal limit cycle. The left panel denotes the produced action potentials, and the right panel shows the related phase space. The reconstructed phase space of the signal shows that the chaotic regime appears. As seen, the generated potentials are different. Some of the potentials are single spikes, and some have burst. Also, the phase space shows that multiple limit cycles emerge that may show chaotic behaviors. The left panel denotes the produced action potentials, and the right panel the related phase space. By increasing the conductance g kdr to 6, more irregularities emerge in the generated action potentials Figure 6. These behaviors may represent chaotic behavior or may lead to chaos. The left panel shows the produced action potentials, and the right panel the related phase space. It can be seen that chaotic oscillations diminish, and regular spiking patterns emerge again. In this case, we see the regular. Despite many studies in addiction, lots of questions have remained unanswered. In this paper, the effect of reducing the conductivity of potassium channels which can be due to the consumption of cocaine in the generation of action potentials was investigated. For this purpose, a computational model was used that could generate the burst-type action potentials. The study of potassium current is critical because, in some experimental research, this current is affected by the consumption of cocaine. In addition to demonstrating this empirical finding using a computational model, we state that chaotic behaviors are also observed in the process of reducing potassium current. Besides that, decreasing the potassium currents in simulations elicits burst action potentials reported in empirical experiments Chen, et al. The simulation results show that by decreasing the potassium current for a fixed stimulatory signal, burst-type action potentials can be generated. With a further reduction of potassium conductance, produced action potentials exhibit non-linear and even chaotic behaviors. The appearance of chaotic patterns has been seen in many diseases and can contribute to forming abnormal and addictive memories, which requires further studies, both in computational and empirical research. The fact that cocaine inhibition of GIRK the G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels may involve in its toxic effects Kobayashi, et al. This research did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors. To arrive at the top five similar articles we use a word-weighted algorithm to compare words from the Title and Abstract of each citation. Neuroscience , 1 , 27 Dec Cited by: 19 articles PMID: EBioMedicine , 2 9 , 31 Jul J Neurophysiol , 75 2 , 01 Feb Cited by: 38 articles PMID: Lee BR , Dong Y. Neuropharmacology , 61 7 , 11 Jan Europe PMC requires Javascript to function effectively. Search life-sciences literature 44,, articles, preprints and more Search Advanced search. This website requires cookies, and the limited processing of your personal data in order to function. By using the site you are agreeing to this as outlined in our privacy notice and cookie policy. Abstract Free full text Similar Articles. Borjkhani H 1 ,. Borjkhani M 2 ,. Sharif MA 2. Affiliations 1. Authors Borjkhani H 1. Share this article Share with email Share with twitter Share with linkedin Share with facebook. Abstract Introduction Drugs of abuse, such as cocaine, affect different brain regions and lead to pathological memories. Results By decreasing the potassium current for a fixed stimulatory signal, burst-type action potentials can be generated. Conclusion Results show that for a specific range of potassium conductance, a chaotic regime emerges in produced action potentials. Highlights Cocaine consumption reduces the potassium current in affected cells. Decreasing the potassium currents elicits burst action potentials. Produced bursts might have chaotic behaviors. Chaotic oscillations might be related to the toxic effects of cocaine. Plain language summary Drugs of abuse such as cocaine can manipulate brain circuits and may form some pathological memories. Free full text. Basic Clin Neurosci. Published online Jan 1. PMID: Sharif 2. Hadi Borjkhani 1. Find articles by Hadi Borjkhani. Mehdi Borjkhani 2. Find articles by Mehdi Borjkhani. Morteza A. Find articles by Morteza A. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Corresponding author. Abstract Introduction: Drugs of abuse, such as cocaine, affect different brain regions and lead to pathological memories. Results: By decreasing the potassium current for a fixed stimulatory signal, burst-type action potentials can be generated. Conclusion: Results show that for a specific range of potassium conductance, a chaotic regime emerges in produced action potentials. Plain Language Summary Drugs of abuse such as cocaine can manipulate brain circuits and may form some pathological memories. Introduction Addiction is a chronic disease that has various negative consequences. Results Simulation results are presented in this section. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 7. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. Discussion Despite many studies in addiction, lots of questions have remained unanswered. Ethical Considerations Compliance with ethical guidelines This research did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors. Footnotes Funding This research did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors. Authors' contributions All authors equally contributed to preparing this article. Conflict of interest The authors declared no conflicts of interest. Refrences Bao G. Morphine and heroin differentially modulate in vivo hippocampal LTP in opiate-dependent rat. Neuropsychopharmacology , 32 8 , — Neurobiology of an addiction memory. Journal of Neural Transmission , 6 , — Assessing the effects of opioids on pathological memory by a computational model. Basic and Clinical Neuroscience , 9 4 , — Computational modeling of opioid-induced synaptic plasticity in hippocampus. PLoS One , 13 3 , e Formation of opioid-induced memory and its prevention: A computational study. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience , 12 , A mathematical model for neuron astrocytes interactions in hippocampus during addiction. Pharmacological Reports , 66 2 , — Neuroscience , 1 , — Opioid inhibition of GABA release from presynaptic terminals of rat hippocampal interneurons. Neuron , 9 2 , — Kinetic models of synaptic transmission. Methods in Neuronal Modeling , 2 , 1— Journal of Neurophysiology , 96 4 , — A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve. The Journal of Physiology , 4 , — Synaptic plasticity and addiction. Nature Reviews Neuroscience , 8 11 , — Memory and addiction: Shared neural circuitry and molecular mechanisms. Neuron , 44 1 , — Toxicology in Vitro , 21 4 , — Effects of drugs of abuse on hippocampal plasticity and hippocampus-dependent learning and memory: Contributions to development and maintenance of addiction. Cocaine-induced seizures, arrhythmias and sudden death. The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology , 28 7 , — Drug-evoked synaptic plasticity causing addictive behavior. The Journal of Neuroscience , 33 45 : —6. Molecular basis of long-term plasticity underlying addiction. Nature Reviews Neuroscience , 2 2 , — Cellular basis of memory for addiction. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience , 15 4 , — Role of voltage-gated sodium, potassium and calcium channels in the development of cocaine-associated cardiac arrhythmias. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology , 69 5 , — The Journal of Membrane Biology , 3 , — Cocaine conditioning induces persisting changes in ventral hippocampus synaptic transmission, long-term potentiation, and radial arm maze performance in the mouse. Neuropharmacology , , 27— Calcium permeable AMPA receptors and silent synapses in cocaine conditioned place preference. The neurobiology of opiate tolerance, dependence and sensitization: Mechanisms of NMDA receptor-dependent synaptic plasticity. Neurotoxicity Research , 4 4 , — Glutamatergic synaptic plasticity in the mesocorticolimbic system in addiction. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience , 8 , A biophysical model of endocannabinoid-mediated short term depression in hippocampal inhibition. PloS One , 8 3 , e Role of NMDA receptors in dopamine neurons for plasticity and addictive behaviors. Neuron , 59 3 , — Similar Articles To arrive at the top five similar articles we use a word-weighted algorithm to compare words from the Title and Abstract of each citation. Characteristics of action potentials and their underlying outward currents in rat taste receptor cells. Cocaine-induced metaplasticity in the nucleus accumbens: silent synapse and beyond.

Moderate Pezeshkian expected to win Iran's presidential race, Iranian source says

Urmia buy cocaine

Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. To self-medicate substance dependence, many substance users consume herbal medicines delivered in herbal medicine shops which are prepared through non-standard methods using a variety of different materials. Hence, the present study was carried out aiming to investigate and analyze the content of such herbal medicines. Four herbal medicine shops were selected from each of the 22 zones of Tehran City, Iran, and a total of 95 samples were purchased. A package containing 6 types of medication that was advertised by a satellite TV channel, was also purchased. Using high-performance liquid chromatography HPLC method, the samples were analyzed in the laboratory to detect different types of materials. Among the samples, 23 and 72 samples were uncovered compressed pills Dragon pills and capsules filled with colored powders handmade self-medicating substance dependence capsules , respectively. The package advertised in the satellite TV was prepared in 6 various forms. The findings of this study showed that handmade capsules and pills used for self-medicating substance dependence and also medicines advertised in the satellite TV channels contain different amounts of opioids, amphetamine, benzodiazepines, tramadol, codeine, and other substances that cause problems for substance users who are going to abandon substance abuse. Keywords: Substance withdrawal, Herbal medicine, Dragon, Component analysis, High-performance liquid chromatography. Drug addiction remedies are often provided and prescribed rudimentarily and unsafely by unprofessional individuals without observance of health issues and without any supervision on them. In some cases, herbalists are not aware of the ingredients and consider them to be safe, while it has been found that at least one chemical substance is used for the preparation of these medicines. Given the increasing use of non-standard herbal medicines provided by herbal medicine shops and advertised by satellite TV channels, this study was conducted with the aim to investigate and analyze the content of handmade pills and capsules used for self-medicating substance dependence. This study was conducted in in Tehran, the capital of Iran. Four herbal medicine shops were selected from each of the zones of Tehran and several pills or capsules were purchased from each shop. As the shop keepers did not provide all individuals with self-medicating substance dependence capsules or pills, the researchers asked several motorcycle rider ex-addicts who were treated to purchase the medicines. The treated ex-addicts were equipped with a voice recorder and all conversations were recorded all the time they were in the herbal medicine shop. Moreover, pills and capsules were chosen in a variety of colors and sizes. A total of 95 self-medicating substance dependence capsules or pills were bought from 88 herbal medicine stores and were delivered to Bahar laboratory Tehran, Iran. Furthermore, a package containing 6 types of medication that was advertised by a satellite TV channel was also purchased and sent to the laboratory. In the laboratory, the samples were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography HPLC to detect different types of opioids opium, opium extract, Sokhteh, Sokhteh extract, heroin, compressed heroin, and morphine powder , amphetamines, benzodiazepines, tramadol, codeine, and other substances. Then, the overall amount of each substance was expressed by rate and percentage. Characteristics of the samples: Of the 95 self-medicating substance dependence capsules and pills purchased from the herbal medicine shops in Tehran, 23 samples were uncovered compressed pills known as Dragon pills which were colored dark and light green, dark and light brown, white, and milky, each weighing 1. The self-medicating substance dependence package advertised by satellite TV channel, known as REXON, contained 6 types of medicine with a brochure written in Persian including instructions for their use. The package included a capsule green-yellow , a pill for depression or insomnia light blue , a jelly capsule for analgesia and hangover blue , a supplementary solution for hangover pink , an anti-temptation drops, and a detoxification solution or syrup Figure 3. Analysis of the samples: Table 1 shows the results of sample analysis. The most common substances present in all of the samples respectively were diphenoxylate, tramadol, opioids, acetaminophen, and codeine. In addition, the most common ingredients present in Dragon pills included tramadol, diphenoxylate, opioids, codeine, and acetaminophen, respectively; however, no trace of methadone was found. Moreover, the most common ingredients available in handmade capsules were diphenoxylate, tramadol, opioids, codeine, and acetaminophen, respectively. Rate of main substances including opioids, codeine, tramadol, diphenoxylate, and acetaminophen present in the illegal drugs for self-medicating substance dependence. The most common ingredients present in Dragon pills included tramadol, diphenoxylate, opioids, codeine, and acetaminophen, respectively. In addition, the most common ingredients present in handmade capsules respectively were diphenoxylate, tramadol, morphine, codeine, and acetaminophen. Furthermore, diphenoxylate, morphine, codeine, acetaminophen, benzodiazepine, and methadone were found in a large number of handmade capsules. Rahimi Movaghar et al. However, as reported by Rahimi Movaghar et al. For example, in the study conducted by Abasi and Nazeri, 2 the investigation was performed only on the samples that consumers were complaining about, while in the present study and the study by Rahimi Movaghar et al. In the study by Rahimi Movaghar et al. As stated by the producers of handmade drugs, herbalists use a variety of chemical compounds, most of which are addictive and psychoactive substances like diphenoxylate, acetaminophen codeine, amitriptyline, methadone, diclofenac, diazepam, clonidine, boosting capsules, and even 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine or ecstasy powder. In addition, many of these substances are controlled and are considered as abusive drugs. In addition, the prescription of any anonymous drug by anyone, even if a physician, is a violation of law. As substance abuse is different from other illnesses and is considered as a crime in Iran, substance users are less likely to refer to judicial centers and make a complaint; thus, those who provide this type of service, especially herbalists, are more prone to fraud and abuse. Finally, it can be stated that none of the handmade self-medicating substance dependence medicines and those advertised by the satellite TV channels were not usable for the treatment of substance dependency, and even a drug was not found to be eligible. Furthermore, because of the false belief that medicine treatment is the only possible method for self-medicating substance dependence, a culture of self-medication has emerged. Substance dependence capsules and pills supplied in herbal medicine shops and those advertised by satellite TV channels contain different amounts of opioids, amphetamine, benzodiazepines, tramadol, codeine, and other substances with the potential for causing complications among individuals who want to stop substance dependence through using such medications. None of the drugs present in the capsules and pills were capable of treating substance abuse and some of them could cause very severe complications. In addition, the herbalist that mixed the mentioned substances was not aware of drug interactions. Furthermore, mixing more than 5 drugs in a capsule can be a risk. Moreover, the use of high amounts of tramadol is associated with the risk of convulsion; therefore, a substance abuser who does not receive any instruction for taking these medications may also be at risk of convulsion. Hence, health policymakers and authorities not only must prevent the supply of such drugs, but also must have more supervision over herbal medicine shops and enhance the public awareness on the use of self-medicating substance dependence medicines advertised by satellite TV channels. As one of the weaknesses of this study, a self-reported questionnaire was not used to investigate the effect of the self-medicating substance dependence medicineson substance abusers who used such medications. Moreover, it was not possible to investigate handmade medicines supplied in other cities of the country. However, as one of the strengths of this study, medicines advertised by satellite TV channels were analyzed and compared with handmade herbal medicines prepared by herbalists. The results of field studies have shown that the sale of medicines advertised by satellite TV channels is significant. In addition, in this study, 4 samples were obtained from each of the municipality zones which were more than the number of samples obtained and analyzed in the study performed by Rahimi Movaghar et al. The results of this study showed that none of the handmade self-medicating substance dependencemedicines and those advertised by satellite TV channels were usable for the treatment of substance dependency, and even a drug was not found to be eligible. The authors in this study appreciate all individuals who collaborated in the sample collection and also the Bahar laboratory staff who collaborated on the analysis of the samples. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Addict Health. Find articles by Hamid Reza Khoddami-Vishteh. Find articles by Hooman Narenjiha. Find articles by Roya Noori. Find articles by Azadeh Olyaei. Find articles by Afsaneh Fard-Sanei. Find articles by Monir Fekri. Find articles by Ali Farhoudian. Received Sep 13; Accepted Nov 8. Open in a new tab. Findings of component analysis of the illegal drugs for self-medicating substance dependence. Conflicts of Interest The Authors have no conflict of interest. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

Urmia buy cocaine