Une base multiraciale

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Une base multiraciale
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Further information: Multiracialism

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Garbarini-Philippe, Roberta (2010). "Perceptions, Representation, and Identity Development of Multiracial Students in American Higher Education" (PDF) . Journal of Student Affairs at New York University . 6 : 1–6.

^ Viager, Ashley (2011). "Multiracial Identity Development: Understanding Choice of Racial Identity in Asian-White College Students" (PDF) . Journal of the Indiana University Student Personnel Association : 38–45.

^ Cross, W.E. (1971). "The Negro-toBlack conversion experience: Toward a psychology of Black liberation". Black World . 20 : 13–27.

^ Morten, G; Atkinson, D.R. (1983). "Minority identity development and preference for counselor race". Journal of Negro Education (52 ed.). 52 (2): 156–161. doi : 10.2307/2295032 . JSTOR 2295032 .

^ "A Groundbreaking Interracial Marriage" . ABC News . 8 January 2009 . Retrieved 12 November 2015 .

^ "Alabama Interracial Marriage, Amendment 2 (2000) - Ballotpedia" . ballotpedia.org . Retrieved 12 November 2015 .

^ "Mixed Race America - Who Is Black? One Nation's Definition | Jefferson's Blood | FRONTLINE | PBS" . www.pbs.org . Retrieved 12 November 2015 .

^ Freeman, Harold P. (1 March 2003). "Commentary on the Meaning of Race in Science and Society" . Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention . 12 (3): 232s–236s. ISSN 1055-9965 . PMID 12646516 .

^ Hud-Aleem, Raushanah; Countryman, Jacqueline (November 2008). "Biracial Identity Development and Recommendations in Therapy" . Psychiatry (Edgmont) . 5 (11): 37–44. ISSN 1550-5952 . PMC 2695719 . PMID 19724716 .

^ Banaji, Mahzarin (2011). "Evidence for Hypodescent and Racial Hierarchy in the Categorization and Perception of Biracial Individuals" (PDF) . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 100 (3): 492–506. doi : 10.1037/a0021562 . PMID 21090902 . S2CID 15132903 .

^ Jones, Nicholas (September 2012). "2010 Census Brief: The two or more races population" (PDF) .

^ Lee, J; Frank, D (2004). "America's Changing Color Lines: Immigration. Race/Ethnicity, and Multiracial Identification". Annual Review of Sociology . 30 : 221–242. doi : 10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110519 .

^ Jump up to: a b Gibbs, Jewelle Taylor (1987). "Identity and Marginality: Issues in the treatment of biracial adolescents". American Journal of Orthopsychiatry . 57 (2): 265–278. doi : 10.1111/j.1939-0025.1987.tb03537.x . PMID 3591911 .

^ Jump up to: a b Poston, W.S. Carlos (1990). "The Biracial Identity Development Model: A Needed Addition". Journal of Counseling and Development . 67 (2): 152–155. doi : 10.1002/j.1556-6676.1990.tb01477.x .

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Rockquemore, Kerry Ann; Brunsma, David L.; Delgado, Daniel J. (March 2009). "Racing to Theory or Retheorizing Race? Understanding the Struggle to Build a Multiracial Identity Theory". Journal of Social Issues . 65 (1): 13–34. doi : 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.01585.x .

^ Stonequist, Everett V. (1937). The Marginal Man: A Study in Personality and Culture Conflict . New York: Russell & Russell. ISBN 9780846202813 .

^ Jump up to: a b Hall, R.E. (2001). "Identity Development Across the Lifespan: a biracial model". The Social Science Journal . 38 (38): 119–123. doi : 10.1016/S0362-3319(00)00113-0 . S2CID 144037574 .

^ Jump up to: a b Shih, Margaret; Sanchez, Diana T. (2005). "Perspectives and Research on the Positive and Negative Implications of Having Multiple Racial Identities". Psychological Bulletin . 131 (4): 569–591. doi : 10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.569 . ISSN 1939-1455 . PMID 16060803 .

^ Miville, Marie L.; Constantine, Madonna G.; Baysden, Matthew F.; So-Lloyd, Gloria (2005). "Chameleon Changes: An Exploration of Racial Identity Themes of Multiracial People". Journal of Counseling Psychology . 52 (4): 507–516. doi : 10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.507 . ISSN 1939-2168 .

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Renn, Kristen A. (2008). "Research on biracial and multiracial identity development: Overview and synthesis". New Directions for Student Services . 2008 (123): 13–21. doi : 10.1002/ss.282 .

^ Cross, W (1987). Phinney, J.S. (ed.). A two-factor theory of Black identity: implications for the study of identity development in minority children . Children's ethnic socialization. Pluralism and Development . Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

^ Root, Maria (1990). Resolving "Other" Status: Identity Development of Biracial Individuals . Diversity and Complexity in Feminist Therapy . The Haworth Press. pp. 185–205.

^ Renn, K; Shang, Paul (2008). "Research on Biracial and Multiracial identity development: Overview and synthesis". New Directions for Student Services . 2008 (123): 13–21. doi : 10.1002/ss.282 .

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Miville, M. L.; Constantine, M. G.; Baysden, M. F.; So-Lloyd, G. (2005). "Chameleon changes: An exploration of racial identity themes of Multiracial people". Journal of Counseling Psychology . 52 (4): 507–516. doi : 10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.507 .

^ Jump up to: a b c Donahue, Lindsy; Juarez, Judy (n.d.). "Kristen Renn's Ecological Theory on Mixed-Race Identity Development" (PDF) . Retrieved 5 May 2017 .

^ Mawhinney, L.; Petchauer, E. (2013). "Coping with the crickets: A fusion autoethnography of silence, schooling, and the continuum of Biracial identity Formation". International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education . 26 (10): 1309–1329. doi : 10.1080/09518398.2012.731537 . S2CID 144309296 .

^ Renn, Kristen A. (June 2008). "Research on biracial and multiracial identity development: Overview and synthesis". New Directions for Student Services . 2008 (123): 13–21. doi : 10.1002/ss.282 .

^ Snyder, Cyndy R. (2016). "Navigating in murky waters: How multiracial Black individuals cope with racism". American Journal of Orthopsychiatry . 86 (3): 265–276. doi : 10.1037/ort0000148 . ISSN 1939-0025 . PMID 26845045 .

^ Jump up to: a b c Swanson, Mahogany (August 2013). "So what are you anyway?" . American Psychological Association. American Psychological Association . Retrieved 6 November 2018 .

^ Bracey, J. R.; Bámaca, M. Y.; Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2004). "Examining ethnic identity and self-esteem among biracial and monoracial adolescents". Journal of Youth and Adolescence . 33 (2): 123–132. doi : 10.1023/b:joyo.0000013424.93635.68 . S2CID 143859335 .

^ LaFromboise, T.; Coleman, H.; Gerton, J. (1993). "Psychological impact of Biculturalism: evidence and theory". Psychological Bulletin . 114 (3): 395–412. doi : 10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.395 . PMID 8272463 .


Biracial and multiracial identity development is described as a process across the life span that is based on internal and external forces such as individual family structure, cultural knowledge, physical appearance, geographic location, peer culture, opportunities for exploration, socio-historical context, etc. [1]

Biracial identity development includes self-identification . A multiracial or biracial person is someone whose parents or ancestors are from different racial backgrounds. Over time many terms have been used to describe those that have a multiracial background. Some of the terms used in the past are considered insulting and offensive (mutt, mongrel, half breed); these terms were given because a person was not recognized by one specific race.

While multiracial identity development refers to the process of identity development of individuals who self-identify with multiple racial groups. [1] Multiracial individuals are defined as those whose parents are of two or more distinct racial groups. [2]

Racial identity development defines an individual's attitudes about self-identity, and directly affects the individual's attitudes about other individuals both within their racial group(s) and others. Racial identity development often requires individuals to interact with concepts of inequality and racism that shape racial understandings in the US.

Research on biracial and multiracial identity development has been influenced by previous research on race. Most of this initial research is focused on black racial identity development (Cross, 1971) [3] and minority identity development (Morten and Atkinson, 1983) [4] .

Like other identities, mixed race people have not been easily accepted in the United States. Numerous laws and practices prohibited interracial sex, marriage, and therefore, mixed race children. Below are some landmark moments in mixed race history.

Anti-miscegenation laws or miscegenation laws enforced racial segregation through marriage and intimate relationships by criminalizing interracial marriage. Certain communities also prohibit having sexual intercourse with a person of another race. As a result of the Supreme Court case Loving v. Virginia , these laws have since been changed in all U.S. states - interracial marriage is permitted. The last states to change these laws were South Carolina and Alabama. South Carolina made this change in 1998 [5] and in 2000, Alabama became the last state in the United States to legalize interracial marriage. [6]

The one-drop rule is a historical social and legal principle of racial classification in the United States. The one drop rule asserts that any person with one ancestor of African ancestry is considered to be Black . This idea was influenced by the concept of "white purity" and concerns of those "tainted" with black ancestry passing as white in the U.S's deeply segregated south. [7] In this time, classification as Black rather than mulatto or mixed became prevalent. The "One Drop Rule" was used as a way to make people of color, especially multiracial Americans feel even more inferior and confused and was put into effect in the 1920s. No other country in the world at the time had thought of or implemented such a discriminatory and specific rule on its citizens [8] The One Drop Rule in a way was taking the Jim Crow Law to a new extreme level to make sure it stayed in power and was used as another extreme measure of social classification. Eventually, biracial and multiracial individuals challenged this assumption and created a new perspective of biracial identity and included the "biracial" option on the census. [9]

The concept of hypodescent refers to the automatic assignment of children of a mixed union between different socioeconomic or ethnic groups to the group with the lower status. This is especially prevalent in the United States where the "one drop rule is still upheld as Whites were a historically dominant social group. People of mixed race ancestry would be categorized as the nonwhite race using this concept. [10] Even in mixed race offspring with no white parent, the racist "one drop rule" places the nonblack racial group as dominant so that the offspring is socially considered black.

A way of classifying someone by looking at their physical appearances, like facial features, skull shape, hair texture etc. and choosing their race based on what they look like.

Before 2000 United States Census respondents were only able to select one race when submitting census data. This means that the census contained no statistical information regarding particular racial mixes and their frequency in the U.S. before this time.

The population of biracial and multiracial people in the U.S. is growing. A comparison of data from the 2000 and 2010 United States Census indicates an overall population increase in individuals identifying with two or more races from 6.8 million people to 9 million people (US Census Data, 2010). [11] In examining specific race combinations, the data showed that, "people who reported White as well as Black or African American—a population that grew by over one million people, increasing by 134 percent—and people who reported White as well as Asian—a population that grew by about three-quarters of a million people, increasing by 87 percent" (US Census Data, 2010). In 2004, one in 40 persons in the United States self-identified as a multiracial, and by the year 2050, it is projected that as many as one in five Americans will claim a Multiracial background, and in turn, a Multiracial or Biracial identity (Lee & Bean, 2004). [12]

When initial racial identity development research is applied to biracial and multiracial people, there are limitations, as they fail to recognize variance in developmental experiences that occur within racial groups (Gibbs, 1987). [13] This research assumes that individuals would choose to identify with, or choose to reject, one racial group over another dependent on life stage. Also, initial racial identity development research does not address real-life resolutions for people upholding multiple racial group identities (Poston, 1990). [14] These assumptions display the need for biracial and multiracial identity development that focuses on the unique aspects of the experience of biracial and multiracial identity development. These theories can be categorized under the following approaches: problem, equivalent, variant, and ecological.

This approach predicts negative outcomes of having multiracial identity. Originating from the Jim Crow era, this theoretical angle focuses on the deficits and problems that are a result of multiracial identities, concluding multiracial individuals are more often victims of rejection, isolation, stigmatization even from both the identities they represent. [15] As a result, multiracial individuals often deal with negative outcomes such as an inferiority complex , hypersensitivity, and moodiness due to their experiences with society.

American sociologist, Everett Stonequist was the first to publish research about the identity development of biracial individuals. His book, The Marginal Man: A Study in Personality and Culture Conflict (1937) discusses pathology in Black families through comparison of Black minority samples to White majority samples. Stonequist claimed that developing a biracial identity is a marginal experience, in which biracial people belong in two worlds and none all at the same time. [16] That they experience uncertainty and ambiguity, which can worsen problems people face identifying with their own racial groups and others (Gibbs, 1987). [13] Building upon the "marginal man", Stonequist (1937) explained that multiracial individuals have a heightened awareness and adaptability to both sides of racial conflict between African Americans and caucasians . [15] As a result, there is an internal crisis within the multiracial individual due to the cultural conflicts that surround them. This internal conflict can be seen in the form of "confusion, shock, disillusionment, and estrangement". [15] A primary limitation of this model is that it is largely internal and focused on development within biracial individuals. The model does not discuss factors such as racism or racial hierarchy, which can worsen feelings of marginality for biracial persons. It does not address other functions of marginality that could also affect biracial identity development such as conflict between parental racial groups, or absence of influence from one racial identity (Hall, 2001). [17] The model fails to describe the experience of biracial people that exhibit characteristics of both races without conflict or feelings of marginality (Poston, 1990). [14]

To address the limitations of Stonequist's Marginal Person Model, researchers have expanded biracial identity development research based on relevant and current understandings of biracial people. Most concepts of biracial identity development highlight the need for racial identity development across the lifespan. This type of development recognizes that identity is no more static a cultural entity than any other and that this fluidity of identity is shaped by the individual's social circumstances and capital (Hall, 2001). [17]

The equivalent approach presents a positive angle towards multiracial identity development, explaining racial identity cultivation is equivalent between monoracial and multiracial individuals yet yields different outcomes. Stemming from the civil rights movement in the U.S. in the 1960s, this approach reorganizes what it means to be "black", encouraging mixed race people to develop a positive integration and eventual adoption of their black identity. Any negative outcomes of this process were considered to be internalized racism of their blackness from microaggressions . [15] This theory soon proved inadequate for explaining mixed identity development, as it did not allow the identification of multiple ethnic groups nor recognize their struggles of developing racial identities. [18] [19] The equivalent approach was derived from Erikson's (1968) ego-identity formation model, which explains a stable identity is formed through a process of "exploratory and experimental stages" that eventually result in a racial identity. [15]

Walker S. Carlos Poston challenged Stonequist's Marginal Man theory and claimed that existing models of minority identity development did not reflect the experiences of biracial and multiracial individuals. [20] Poston proposed the first model for the development of a healthy biracial and multiracial identity in 1990. [1] This model was developed from research on biracial individuals and information from relevant support groups. Rooted in counseling psychology , the model adapts Cross’ (1987) [21] concept of reference group orientation (RGO), which includes constructions of racial identity, esteem, and ideology. Poston's model divided the biracial and multiracial identity development process into five distinct stages:

This model offers an alternative identity development process compared to the minority identity development models widely used in the student affairs profession. [20] However, it does not accurately address how societal racism affects the development process of people of color [20] and suggests that there is only one healthy identity outcome for biracial and multiracial individuals. [1]

The variant approach is one of the most contemporary racial development theories, explaining racial identity cultivation is a process that takes place over a series of stages according to age. [15] Starting in the 1980s, new researchers sought to explain that mixed-race individuals comprised their own racial category, establishing an independent "multiracial identity". Among these researchers, Maria Root published Racially Mixed People in America (1992) which justified mixed race individuals as their own racial category, thus explaining they endure their own unique racial development. [15] The variant approach challenges previous theoretical approaches lack integration of multical racial identities. [15] The progression of this theory is represented by the following chronological stages: personal identity, choice of group categorization, denial, appreciation of group orientation, and integration. [18]

Maria Root's Resolutions for Resolving Otherness (1990) [22] address the phenomenological experience of otherness in a biracial context and introduced a new identity group: multiracial. [20] With a footing in cultural psychology , Root suggests that the strongest conflict in biracial and multiracial identity development is the tension between racial components within one's self. She presents alternative resolutions
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