Un fist métissé
🛑 TOUTES LES INFORMATIONS CLIQUEZ ICI 👈🏻👈🏻👈🏻
Un fist métissé
Arts & Culture
Business & Economics
Communities & Sociology
Education
History/Historical Figures
Military
Nature & Geography
Politics & Law
Science & Technology
Sports & Recreation
Arts & Culture
Buildings & Monuments
Cities & Populated Places
Geographical features
Historic sites
Military
Parks & Nature Reserves
Provinces & Territories
Transportation
Arts & Culture
Business & Economics
Communities & Sociology
Education
History
Military
Nature & Geography
Politics & Law
Science & Technology
Sports & Recreation
Enter your suggested edit(s) to this article in the form field below
MLA 8TH EDITION
Gaudry, Adam. "Métis". The Canadian Encyclopedia , 11 September 2019, Historica Canada . www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/metis. Accessed 12 August 2022.
Copy
APA 6TH EDITION
Gaudry, A. (2019). Métis. In The Canadian Encyclopedia . Retrieved from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/metis
Copy
CHICAGO 17TH EDITION
Gaudry, Adam. "Métis." The Canadian Encyclopedia . Historica Canada. Article published January 07, 2009; Last Edited September 11, 2019.
Copy
TURABIAN 8TH EDITION
The Canadian Encyclopedia , s.v. "Métis," by Adam Gaudry, Accessed August 12, 2022, https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/metis
Copy
Métis are people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry, and one of the three recognized Aboriginal peoples in Canada. The use of the term Métis is complex and contentious, and has different historical and contemporary meanings. The term is used to describe communities of mixed European and Indigenous descent across Canada, and a specific community of people — defined as the Métis Nation — which originated largely in Western Canada and emerged as a political force in the 19th century, radiating outwards from the Red River Settlement. While the Canadian government politically marginalized the Métis after 1885, they have since been recognized as an Aboriginal people with rights enshrined in the Constitution of Canada and more clearly defined in a series of Supreme Court of Canada decisions.
Louis Riel, circa 1873.
(courtesy Provincial Archives of Manitoba/N-5733)
In this family portrait, we see the blending of two cultures. The father wears a European suit adorned with a pocket watch. The mother, who might be Métis, holds their infant in a cradle board, traditionally used by First Nations peoples. The shawls,
worn by several of the women and girls, reflect Métis culture.
In 1816 Grant led the Métis to victory at Seven Oaks, an unplanned clash of Métis and Selkirk settlers (courtesy Public Archives of Manitoba/John Kerr Coll 127).
Paul Kane, 1846, watercolour on paper (courtesy Stark Foundation, Orange, Texas).
At the elbow of the North Saskatchewan River, September 1871, albumen print. The Red River cart was the primary means of transporting goods among the Métis traders (Library and Archives Canada/PA-138573).
Councillors of the Provisional Government of the Métis Nation, 1870.
Gabriel Dumont was a man of great chivalry and military skill, superbly adapted to the presettlement prairie life (courtesy Glenbow Archives).
Lacombe used his trace of native blood to gain entry to the hearts of the Métis and native peoples in 1852 when he came west to serve them (courtesy PAA).
Pierre Paquin, La Broquerie, Manitoba, 2 June 1956.
Woven by Carol James, a finger woven ceinture fléchée was traditionally worn by French Canadians and Métis in the 1800s.
Selected Works of Indigenous Authors
Métis National Council
Métis
Indigenous Peoples
Louis Riel
Updates? Omissions? Article suggestions?
We want to hear from you
Did you like your experience?
Take our survey
Follow us elsewhere
Twitter
Facebook
Youtube
About
Contribute
Contact
Sitemap
privacy policy
accessibility
Historica Canada
Indigenous Arts & Stories
Citizenship challenge
Encounters with Canada
Heritage minutes
Passages Canada
The memory project
Signing up enhances your TCE experience with the ability to save items to your personal reading list, and access the interactive map.
Our team will be reviewing your submission and get back to you with any further questions.
Thanks for contributing to The Canadian Encyclopedia.
Métis are people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry, and one of the three recognized Aboriginal peoples in Canada. The use of the term Métis is complex and contentious, and has different historical and contemporary meanings. The term is used to describe communities of mixed European and Indigenous descent across Canada, and a specific community of people — defined as the Métis Nation — which originated largely in Western Canada and emerged as a political force in the 19th century, radiating outwards from the Red River Settlement . While the Canadian government politically marginalized the Métis after 1885, they have since been recognized as an Aboriginal people with rights enshrined in the Constitution of Canada and more clearly defined in a series of Supreme Court of Canada decisions.
The use of the terms “Métis” and “métis” is complex and contentious. When capitalized, the term often describes people of the Métis Nation, who trace their origins to the Red River Valley
and the prairies beyond. The Métis National Council (MNC), the political organization that represents the Métis Nation, defined “Metis” in 2002 as: “a person who self-identifies as Métis, is distinct from other Aboriginal Peoples, is of historic Métis
Nation ancestry and who is accepted by the Métis Nation.” The MNC defines the Métis homeland as the three Prairie provinces and parts of Ontario ,
British Columbia , the Northwest Territories and the northern United States. Members
of the Métis Nation have a common culture, ancestral language ( Michif ), history and political tradition, and are connected through an extensive network of kin relations.
The Congress of Aboriginal Peoples (CAP) has been critical of this definition of Métis, asserting that it excludes “many people who have legitimate claims
to Métis identity.” Despite CAP’s stance, the MNC’s position is the one that has generally been adopted by federal and provincial governments and the courts. For example, Métis Aboriginal rights defined in the Powley decision and section 35 of the Constitution Act , 1982 have only been applied to Métis communities west of Sault Ste. Marie , Ontario. While several lawsuits claiming
section 35 Métis rights have been brought before the courts by other communities, none have been successful. For example, R. v. Vatour in 2010 ruled against the notion of a Métis community in the Maritimes. Further, the implementation of these
rights defined by the Powley decision and by various provincial governments all fall within the MNC's definition of the "Métis Homeland, " which includes the Prairie provinces, and parts of Ontario, BC and the NWT.
Typically, when written with a small-m, métis refers to any community of European-Indigenous ancestry, including those in Ontario and Québec and non-status settlements near First
Nations reserves . It is often used to describe mixed-descent families and communities during the 18th and early 19th century Great Lakes fur trade ,
although some scholars now avoid using the term.
Contemporary usage of Métis is also different from its historical meaning. At Red River in the 19th century there were two prominent communities of mixed-descent people. In addition to a sizeable French-speaking and nominally Catholic Métis population, there was a large group of English-speaking “Half-breeds” who were mainly Anglican agriculturists. While these interrelated communities can be considered to be distinct constituencies — even though the boundaries between them were quite
porous — the derogatory nature of the term “Half-breed” has caused it to fall largely into disuse. Thus, the contemporary meaning of “Métis” typically includes people of both French- and English-speaking heritage.
There are also Canadian legal definitions that further complicate Métis terminology. Section 35(2) of the Constitution Act, 1982 recognizes “ Indian ,
Inuit and Métis peoples” as Aboriginal peoples under Canadian law, yet despite several Supreme Court of Canada decisions, Métis Aboriginal rights —
and who may possess these rights — remain, for the most part, undefined. However, in 2016, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in the Daniels case that the federal government has jurisdiction over Métis people, and that both members of the Métis Nation and Non-Status Indians are “Indians” as defined by the Constitution Act . The Court stopped short of clarifying the legal definition of Métis, but removed one barrier governments used for generations to avoid dealing with outstanding Métis issues.
There are people of mixed ancestry throughout Canada. The earliest mixed Indigenous-European marriages can be traced to the earliest days of contact, yet whether these marriages resulted in distinct Métis communities has long been the subject of scholarly
debate. Some academics have argued that any mixed-descent person should be considered Métis. However, other scholars, along with the MNC, suggest that only those who were part of distinct Métis communities and used the term “Métis” in a self-referential
way, should be called Métis. “Labrador Métis” for example, have dropped Métis for this reason and instead prefer a term their ancestors used to define themselves: NunatuKavut. Scholars who defend the Red River definition of “Métis” argue that Métis identity
is not simply the result of a dual heritage, but rather a matter of possessing a singular cultural heritage of dual origins; someone of Cree and French Canadian descent would be considered Métis not solely by virtue of their mixed-descent, but whether they have Métis heritage that can be traced back to the Red River community.
Others have argued that such a narrow definition offers a limited understanding of Métis history. Communities in Ontario and Eastern Canada that have sought official recognition as Métis, for example, have expressed frustration at the popular notion that
a traceable ancestry to the Red River settlement is a necessary requirement to “authentically” identifying as Métis. They argue that mixed-descent families and communities have existed since the 18th and early 19th century Great Lakes fur trade ,
before the establishment of the Red River Settlement. However, for many Red River Métis, the term is an important part of their specific history, heritage and identity, as enshrined by Canadian law. This remains an issue of heated debate among many métis
people in Canada. ( See The "Other " Métis ; Métis Are a People, Not a Historical Process ).
The first small-m métis communities emerged during the Great Lakes fur trade in the 18th century. Great Lakes Indigenous diplomatic and economic protocols encouraged French fur
traders to establish family connections through marriage and ceremonial adoption with prominent Indigenous families in the region. Such unions with Aboriginal women — referred to as marriages à la façon du pays , “according to the custom of the
country” — usually involved mutual commitments with local Indigenous kin and communities. French traders often lived out their lives with these families, whether formally employed at the forts or subsisting as gens libres (French and Métis freemen
who supplied the posts or served intermittently as guides, interpreters or voyageurs). Game, fish, wild rice and maple sugar furnished sustenance, supplemented by small-scale slash-and-burn agriculture. Over time small groups of mixed families situated
themselves in specific economic niches, with many rising to economic and social prominence throughout the Great Lakes region.
Scholarship has suggested that the application of the term “métis” to the Great Lakes region at this time is problematic since these mixed communities favoured terms like Saulteurs , bois brûlés (literally “burnt wood”), or chicots. While the term “métis” appears occasionally in contemporary writing, it was used predominantly by outsiders to make sense of a complex set of relationships between Indigenous communities and their relatives, not
necessarily by the Great Lakes “métis” themselves. Likewise, the term “Métis” did not make its way into common language at Red River until the early 19th century, several years after the decline of the Great Lakes fur trade and the mixed communities
it supported. Despite this distinction in terminology, the Métis of Red River and the métis of the Great Lakes were often connected through marriage and kinship practices.
The success of the fur trade in the region that the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) called Rupert’s Land also relied on intermarriage. While the Company initially attempted to suppress these “country marriages,” the effectiveness of these unions in establishing trade networks, along with the successful use of intermarriage by the rival North West Company (NWC),
convinced the HBC to modify its policy. Initially, the children of these marriages lacked the distinct community and economic base upon which to build a separate identity. While some HBC officers' mixed children were educated in England, Scotland or
in the Canadas ( see Upper and Lower Canada , later the Province of Canada ),
and other families were left in the care of other HBC employees when senior officers returned to Europe, not all mixed-descent children faced difficult prospects. Many of these mixed-descent children remained in the North-West, living near one another
and developing a sense of themselves as a unique cultural and social community. This sense of self would eventually evolve into a sense of political commonality.
It was in the Red River region and on the prairies that the Métis began to make their mark on Canadian history. By 1810 they had established roles as buffalo hunters and
provisioners to the NWC. As NWC supply lines lengthened to Athabasca and beyond, the Red River heartland became crucial to the Montréal-based traders as a provisioning.
Accordingly, in 1811, Thomas Douglas, Earl of Selkirk , reached an agreement with the HBC to found the agricultural colony of Assiniboia for Scottish settlers with the ultimate goal of provisioning the HBC. The early Métis were allied with the Nor’Westers , and saw the colony as a direct threat to the NWC’s trade
and thus their own livelihood.
Nor'Wester William McGillivray admitted in a letter of 14 March 1818 that the Métis were linked to the NWC by occupation and kinship. “Yet,” he emphasized, “they one
and all look upon themselves as members of an independent tribe of natives, entitled to a property in the soil, to a flag of their own, and to protection from the British government.” Further, it was well proved “that the half-breeds under the denominations
of bois-brûlés and métifs have formed a separate and distinct tribe of Indians for a considerable time back.”
The early Red River Colony did not allay these fears, but rather antagonized the Métis and the NWC. Decrees from the governor of the colony forbade the export and sale of pemmican to
anyone but local HBC forts, and later banned hunting buffalo from horseback ( see Pemmican Proclamation ).
These were direct economic sanctions against Métis families who provisioned the NWC with pemmican made from buffalo meat (which had been hunted on horseback). After escalating raids on rival fur trade forts by HBC and NWC officers, many prominent Métis grew hostile to the Selkirk settlement’s leaders and, under the leadership of Cuthbert Grant , in 1815 decided to evict
the settlers from the region. In 1816, after Selkirk himself had decided to evict the Nor’Westers, the governor of the settlement, Robert Semple , confronted a group of Métis
soldiers at Seven Oaks . A battle broke out and the Métis soldiers killed Semple and several colonists. The event was memorialized in Pierre Falcon ’s
“La Chanson de la Grenouillère.” ( See also: Music of the Métis .)
The Battle of Seven Oaks resulted in an agreement between Cuthbert Grant and the Selkirk settlement
La jeune Lola Fox baise un noir
Mauvaise conduite de la blonde sexy
Quatre bites dures pour Kenza