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This report focuses on Turkey's prominence as an emerging market for cocaine trafficking and organized crime in the last decade. The escalating demand and price for cocaine in European markets have created a lucrative incentive for drug traffickers. This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the factors driving Turkey's transformation into an emerging cocaine trafficking hub. Open-source data is compiled and analyzed to illustrate the scale and scope of cocaine seizures within Turkey and originating from Latin America en route to Turkish shores. The evidence presented suggests that the actors in Turkey actively facilitates the flow of cocaine to Europe, rather than providing a passive transit point. The noted rise in cocaine seizures is not necessarily indicative of more effective law enforcement; rather, it highlights the sheer volume of cocaine transit through Turkey. The simultaneous rise in drug treatment requests for cocaine use in Turkey over the past decade suggests that the country itself has become an emerging market for cocaine. The findings suggest that cocaine trafficking through Turkey has become a multibillion-dollar business that encompasses several countries and international organized crime groups. The scale of this illicit trade underscores the immense profits at stake and highlights the urgent need for effective measures to counteract the threat. The first section of the report examines Latin America and global trends in cocaine trafficking. The second section addresses the rise of cocaine trafficking in Europe. The final section explores Turkey's recent emergence as a key player in the cocaine trade and its underlying causes. Latin America has long been a major global source of coca bush cultivation and cocaine production and trafficking. Latin America is now a producer and exporter of cocaine on an unprecedented scale. The surge in cocaine production in the region is a multifaceted issue driven by economic incentives, political instability, corruption, and global demand. On the other hand, the number of people who use cocaine is increasing at a faster rate than population growth. In , Colombia and Bolivia reported a record-breaking number of cocaine seizures, and Peru reported a significant increase in coca base confiscations. In rural areas with limited economic opportunities, coca cultivation offers farmers and producers a lucrative alternative to growing traditional crops. This income disparity drives impoverished farmers toward coca cultivation, contributing to the persistent expansion of the industry. Colombia remains the principal source of cocaine cultivation. In , Colombia recorded its highest-ever coca crop coverage of , hectares, 5 followed by Peru with 80, hectares, a trend attributed to the substantial profitability of cocaine production. The recent increase in cocaine production in Latin America is closely tied to political instability and corruption in the region. Weak governance, an increasingly uncertain security environment, and limited state presence in rural areas enable illegal activities like cocaine production, while corruption among officials and law enforcement officers gives traffickers impunity. All of these factors foster an environment that is conducive to organized crime. For example, Ecuador has seen a significant rise in criminal violence in recent years. Increased control along Colombia's borders has pushed cocaine traffickers to find alternative routes in the region. Consequently, cocaine trafficking from Colombia has significantly increased in Venezuela, which has become an attractive alternative route due to its weak state capacity for law enforcement. Venezuelan officials reported seizing 44 tons of cocaine in , indicating the expanding role of new coca-growing regions. Interceptions of cocaine shipments by law enforcement have significantly increased worldwide, with seizures reaching a record high of nearly 2, tons in While these efforts have yielded some results, the US market has also become oversaturated, and American consumers increasingly prefer synthetic drugs like fentanyl. Consequently, drug trafficking organizations have strategically shifted their cocaine smuggling operations to new regions. North America has long been a major global consumer of cocaine. The US market peaked in and has slightly contracted since then. Interdictions and purity levels in wholesale markets suggest a slight decline in incoming flows and availability. However, demand-side indicators suggest that the market has decreased since Simultaneously, Western and Central Europe has started to emerge as the second-largest global consumer market for cocaine after the United States and a favored destination for South American drug cartels seeking new markets to absorb their increased cocaine production. The cocaine market in South Eastern Europe has expanded and become increasingly harmful such as drug use disorders and direct drug-related deaths in recent years. Cocaine consumption in Europe has increased over the last decade, and the current profit margins are higher than those in the United States. Cocaine is the second most common illicit drug in Europe, and its consumption has increased since The upward trend in cocaine exports is further supported by wastewater data analysis in Europe, which detects drug residues. According to the European Drug Report, cocaine consumption increased in and in 37 of 65 cities included in the report. EU Drugs Agency indicates that approximately 2. Cocaine enters Europe through airborne, maritime, and land routes. Land routes traverse Turkey and the Balkan countries, and airborne transport often involves concealment of small drug quantities by commercial airway passengers. The predominant and most significant route is maritime. Ecuador has emerged as the primary source for cocaine destined for Europe from Latin America. The bustling ports in western Europe serve as hubs for cocaine distribution, predominantly orchestrated by Albanian organized crime groups that wield significant influence over the European drug trade. The Antwerp Port seized 40 tons of cocaine in , 60 tons in , 91 tons in , and tons in Authorities estimate that these seizures only intercept approximately one-tenth of the cocaine entering through Belgian ports. In comparison, US customs and border officials seized just 37 tons of cocaine in across the country. In , South American nations intercepted tons of cocaine destined for Europe, with 70 tons of that total earmarked for Antwerp. The shift in cocaine trafficking from the United States to Europe has been driven by several factors. Over the past decade, Mexican cartels have gained control over key US border crossing points, relegating Colombian traffickers to the role of suppliers. Faced with the risks of confronting these cartels and becoming primary targets of US anti-narcotics efforts, Colombia traffickers chose instead to focus on the European market, which offers higher profits and lower risks than the US market. As a result, Europe has emerged as arguably the most important cocaine market in the world. Spain, the Netherlands, and Belgium are key entry points and currently represent the majority of cocaine seizures. Previously, these countries were primarily supplied by small-volume traffickers using mules or courier mail. However, in recent years, trafficking has shifted to shipping containers, which arrive at ports containing hundreds and even thousands of kilos. The cocaine trade in Latin America was once controlled by just a few major players, including Colombian and Mexican cartels. However, given new global trends and the fact that Europe has become the primary market for Latin American cocaine, new actors in Europe have started to play crucial roles in cocaine trafficking. Criminal groups in Europe and the Balkans have been increasing their influence in the region. These criminal organizations have taken advantage of widespread corruption and lack of security in critical infrastructure such as ports, which these groups exploit to bring drugs to the European continent. They use various routes and methods to transport cocaine from Latin America to major ports in Europe. European and Balkan drug trafficking organizations have established trafficking routes and direct relationships with Latin American traffickers. These connections allow them to bypass intermediaries, enhancing direct cocaine supply lines. Authorities report that as cocaine production has surged in South America over the past decade, Balkan traffickers have become key players in fueling the European drug demand. By leveraging their established routes and presence in Latin America, European and Balkan drug trafficking organizations can effectively negotiate with sellers, transporters, and corruption cells to ensure a steady flow of drugs into Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. As Europe has increasingly become the primary target market for Latin American cocaine, another eye-catching development has happened, Turkey has simultaneously emerged as an important market for the global cocaine trade. The volume of cocaine seized in Turkey has surged in recent years, from 2. It is important to note that the rise in cocaine seizures is not necessarily indicative of more effective law enforcement; rather, it suggests a significant increase in the volume of cocaine being trafficked through the country. Weakening of the rule of law, political alliances, judicial corruption, and compromised law enforcement have all contributed to Turkey's expanding role in illicit drug trade. This report gathered data from open sources, such as media reports and press releases from different countries, to provide a clearer picture of Turkey's burgeoning role in the cocaine trade. The report findings are drawn from extensive information on cocaine seizures in Latin America and Europe, particularly focusing on cocaine shipments destined for Turkey. Cocaine seizures from Latin America destined for Turkey have dramatically increased between and A seizure of 3, kg in Spain marked the beginning of this trend. In , the trend persisted with a notable seizure of 1, kg in Brazil, 31 and in , there were multiple seizures totaling 1, kg, with significant interceptions in Ecuador 46 kg in February 32 and kg in June 33 and Malta kg in April. The upward trend dramatically intensified in , with total seizures reaching 8, kg. This total includes significant interceptions in Italy 5, kg in July , 35 Peru 2, kg in March , 36 Spain kg in February , 37 and Colombia kg in September. Incomplete data suggest that the increase in cocaine seizures continues. As of September , notable amounts include 1, kg in Morocco January , 39 kg in Colombia May , 40 kg in Panama June , 41 and 3, kg in Venezuela September , 42 an overall total of 4, kg of cocaine seized. Table 2 presents information on cocaine seizures from to , including the amounts seized in Turkey and en route, as well as the estimated retail price and estimated value of the trafficked volume. In , a total of 6, kg of cocaine was seized, including 5, kg abroad and 1, kg in Turkey. By , the total seizures had increased to 10, kg, with 8, kg seized abroad and 2, kg in Turkey. These retail prices are specific to Turkey; cocaine prices are higher in Europe and substantially higher in the Gulf countries. Notably, these figures represent only a small fraction of the total cocaine trafficked. As the data in this report suggests, Turkey has rapidly evolved into a significant transit point for the global cocaine trade. Effective law enforcement and interdiction alone cannot explain the increased number of cocaine seizures in Turkey. This section of the report will outline the factors contributing to Turkey's increasing role in cocaine trafficking and criminal activities. While cocaine trafficking has increased globally, several factors have made Turkey particularly susceptible to this trend. Turkey's lenient residency and citizenship laws for wealthy foreigners have made the country a haven for criminals. In , Turkey introduced new regulations to provide an easy process to obtain Turkish citizenship through real estate purchases. This policy has inadvertently facilitated the operations of high-profile criminals. Israeli media, based on information from Mossad, claimed that Majid had been recruited by Iran to carry out this attack. In , Jovan Vukotic, the leader of a faction within the gang, was arrested in Turkey based on a red notice by Interpol. Later, he was extradited to Serbia, where the High Court in Belgrade sentenced him to 15 months in prison for using a forged North Macedonian passport. The AKP government's frequent tax amnesty programs aim to repatriate undeclared funds and boost the nation's foreign reserves. Motivated by Turkey's economic challenges, the initiatives have provided an opportunity for criminals to launder illicit proceeds under the guise of legitimate wealth. These programs have attracted significant interest from individuals involved in Latin American drug trafficking. Individuals or entities pay a nominal tax on the declared amount. This simplicity made the program an appealing option for criminal money laundering. This arrest made headlines in Turkey, Australia, and New Zealand. In March , reports claimed he was living luxuriously in Turkey, despite being a wanted drug lord. This article noted that he was wanted by Interpol. One of the most important reasons for the increase in cocaine seizures in Turkey is the undermining of the rule of law in the country since These large-scale purges in the judiciary and police have undermined the rule of law. The erosion of legal norms and institutions in Turkey has created an environment in which illegal activities, including drug trafficking, can flourish with low risk of detection and punishment. For example, Naji Sharifi Zindasthi, an Iranian drug lord and criminal, was arrested in for murder and solicitation to murder but inexplicably released six months later. Another example is Ayhan Bora Kaplan, whose rise as an organized crime leader has allegedly been supported by government officials. The erosion of the rule of law in Turkey has also created a fertile ground for corruption and bribery, which have become essential tools of organized crime. The growing criminal landscape in Turkey has drawn international attention. The presence of prominent Albanian and Ecuadorian cocaine traffickers operating in Turkey further solidifies this observation. Mafia leaders worldwide often have close ties with politicians, and Turkey is no exception. Far-right political parties in Turkey, especially the MHP, have been known to forge such connections. When discussing the connection between cocaine trafficking, organized crime, and political parties, it is crucial to recognize its transnational dimension. Recent troubling videos have exposed links between Turkish organized crime groups, ideologically affiliated with the MHP, and international crime syndicates. In , members of the Sinaloa Cartel posted videos on social media greeting their Turkish associates. Although Peker's allegations are referenced in the U. Various reports indicate a rising involvement of Turkish organized crime groups in cocaine trafficking across Latin America, similar to the activities of European and Balkan crime organizations. These networks are primarily involved in drug trafficking including cocaine and cannabis and money laundering. Europol reported that the leaders of the drug trafficking organization operated from Turkey and Dubai. However, only money laundering investigations were launched during this period. Although not all serious crimes warrant a money laundering investigation, this low percentage suggests that authorities may overlook money laundering in the vast majority of high-risk cases. Table 3 illustrates the extent of the international criminal presence in Turkey. Notably, most if not all of the arrested drug lords were released during trials. However, the large number of arrests of high-level drug bosses raises the question: How and why were these high-level drug lords with red notices from INTERPOL able to settle in Turkey in the first place? In the meantime, Turkey has made improvements in risk-based anti-money laundering supervision, strengthened sanctions for anti-money laundering violations, enhanced beneficial ownership requirements, and conducted more comprehensive investigations and prosecutions related to money laundering, in accordance with perceived risks. Global cocaine markets are rapidly expanding, driven by traditional markets in North America and emerging markets in Europe. Organized crime groups involved in cocaine trafficking are evolving their strategies to adapt to less stringent law enforcement in these emerging regions, thus reshaping the global cocaine distribution network. This report focuses on Turkey's growing role as a hub for cocaine trafficking and organized crime, driven by political and legal changes. Since , and particularly since the coup attempt, the Turkish government has weakened the rule of law by replacing key legal and law enforcement officials with loyalists. New citizenship policies implemented in have attracted wealthy criminals, facilitated money laundering, and made Turkey a safe haven for crime bosses. Considering the black economy created by the people employed in cocaine trafficking, the distribution networks, and the money laundered within the banking system and its coefficient effects, the actual value of this industry is likely even higher. Turkish criminals are involved in the trade of not only cocaine, but also methamphetamine, amphetamine, heroin, and other synthetic and natural drugs. Turkey was placed on the FATF grey list in but removed in due to intensified anti-money laundering efforts. Nonetheless, the root causes of the increased drug trade in Turkey remain intact. Many drug traffickers in the country were released shortly after their arrests, and trials are ongoing for others, often dragging on for years without resolution. The lack of decisive legal action allows criminal networks to continue their operations with relative impunity. Without addressing the systemic issues within the judiciary and law enforcement and closing the legal loopholes that criminals exploit, Turkey's role in the global drug trade is likely to persist and expand in the coming years. United Nations Publications, , p. Why coca leaf, not coffee, may always be Colombia's favourite cash crop. The Conversation. Although some traditional elements of organized criminal activity, such as violence and collusion with political figures and legitimate businesses, persist, the current landscape of illegal profit-making has evolved dramatically. The port in Antwerp, the second largest in Europe, handles 12 million containers every year. Exploiting this structural weakness, cartels continue to send an increasing amount of cocaine through Antwerp each year. Smugglers employ various tactics, including concealing drugs in containers filled with perishable goods or using elaborate methods such as hiding cocaine in hollowed-out logs, pineapples, or fabric. While customs officials use giant X-ray machines to inspect containers without opening them, scanning a large percentage is not feasible due to time and cost constraints. The pressure to expedite container processing further complicates the task of identifying and intercepting drug shipments. Despite receiving tips from U. Criminals Tried to Take It Back. The Cocaine Pipeline to Europe. February , p. Creating employment opportunities for a minimum of 50 individuals is also a viable route. Moreover, financial options include depositing USD , in Turkish banks, purchasing government bonds or shares in real estate or venture capital investment funds, all with a condition of holding for three years. Another pathway involves contributing USD , to designated private pension funds for a similar duration. Dordrecht: Springer, Introduction This report focuses on Turkey's prominence as an emerging market for cocaine trafficking and organized crime in the last decade. Executive Summary The increasing international demand for cocaine has significantly driven its production in Latin America. Worldwide, interceptions of cocaine shipments by law enforcement have significantly increased since , with seizures reaching a record high of nearly 2, tons in compared to tons in the early s. Due to oversaturation and decreasing demand for cocaine in the United States, Europe has emerged as a favored destination for South American drug cartels seeking new markets capable of absorbing their surging cocaine production. As a result, the Turkish government has intensified its fight against narcotics trafficking. The AK Party AKP government's frequent tax amnesty programs benefit criminals involved in drug trafficking by providing an opportunity to launder illicit proceeds under the guise of legitimate wealth. Turkey's lenient residency and citizenship laws for wealthy foreigners and refusal to extradite its citizens have made the country a haven for criminals seeking to evade prosecution in their home countries. Erosion of legal norms and weakened criminal justice institutions in Turkey have created an environment in which illegal activities, including illicit drug trafficking, can flourish with lowered risk of detection and punishment. High-profile cases involving government officials and organized crime groups exemplify this systemic corruption and political interference. This trend has exacerbated since the corruption investigations against AKP ministers in and the coup attempt in Organized crime groups in Turkey have historically been involved in facilitating the drug trade. Recently, however, certain mafia organizations linked to the Turkish far-right have emerged as key players in establishing cocaine trafficking connections with Latin American cartels. Record Cocaine Seizures and Rising Cultivation in Latin America In , Colombia and Bolivia reported a record-breaking number of cocaine seizures, and Peru reported a significant increase in coca base confiscations. Quick Links.

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