Tit L

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Tit L
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Passerine bird in the tit family Paridae

^ Jump up to: a b BirdLife International (2016). Parus major . The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016. doi : 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22735990A87431138.en

^ Estók, Péter; Zsebők, Sándor; Siemers, Björn M. (2009). "Great tits search for, capture, kill and eat hibernating bats" . Biology Letters . 6 (1): 59–62. doi : 10.1098/rsbl.2009.0611 . PMC 2817260 . PMID 19740892 .

^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata (in Latin). Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii). p. 189. P. capite nigro, temporibus albis, nucha lutea

^ Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5th ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. ISBN 978-0-304-52257-6 .

^ Willughby, Francis (1681). The ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton in the county of Warwick, esq. ... London, United Kingdom: A.C. for John Martyn. p. 240.

^ Jump up to: a b Kvist, Laura; Martens, Jochen; Higuchi, Hiroyoshi; Nazarenko, Alexander A; Valchuk, Olga P.; Orell, Markku (2003). "Evolution and genetic structure of the great tit ( Parus major ) complex" . Proceedings of the Royal Society B . 270 (1523): 1447–1454. doi : 10.1098/rspb.2002.2321 . PMC 1691391 . PMID 12965008 .

^ Paynter Jr. RA, ed. (1967). Check-list of birds of the world. Volume 11 . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. pp. 104–110.

^ Päckert, Martin; Martens, Jochen; Eck, Siegfried; Nazarenko, Alexander A; Valchuk, Olga P; Petri, Bernd; Veith, Michael (2005). "The great tit ( Parus major ) – a misclassified ring species" . Biological Journal of the Linnean Society . 86 (2): 153–174. doi : 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2005.00529.x .

^ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2010). "IOC World Bird Names (version 2.3)" . Archived from the original on 24 July 2011 . Retrieved 19 February 2010 .

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Gosler, Andrew; Clement, Peter (2007). "Family Paridae (Tits and Chickadees)". In del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Christie, David (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 12: Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees . Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 662–709. ISBN 978-84-96553-42-2 .

^ Päckert, Martin; Martens, Jochen (2008). "Taxonomic pitfalls in tits – comments on the Paridae chapter of the Handbook of the Birds of the World" (PDF) . Ibis . 154 (4): 829–831. doi : 10.1111/j.1474-919X.2008.00871.x .

^ Jump up to: a b Harrap, Simon; Quinn, David (1996). Tits, Nuthatches and Treecreepers . Christopher Helm. pp. 353–371. ISBN 978-0-7136-3964-3 .

^ Jump up to: a b Mlíkovský, Jiří (26 August 2011). "Nomenclatural and taxonomic status of bird taxa (Aves) described by an ornithological swindler, Josef Prokop Pražák (1870–1904)". Zootaxa . 3005 (3005): 45–68. doi : 10.11646/zootaxa.3005.1.2 .

^ Avibase. The world bird database.

^ Jump up to: a b Norris, K. J. (1990). "Female choice and the evolution of the conspicuous plumage coloration of monogamous male great tits". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology . 26 (2): 129–138. doi : 10.1007/bf00171582 . S2CID 36757531 .

^ Dell'Amore, Christine (20 January 2010). "Flashier Great Tit Birds Produce Stronger Sperm" . National Geographic . Retrieved 21 January 2010 .

^ Fitze, PS; Kölliker M; Heinz Richner (2003). "Effects of Common Origin and Common Environment on Nestling Plumage Coloration in the Great Tit ( Parus major )". Evolution . 57 (1): 144–150. doi : 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00222.x . PMID 12643574 . S2CID 24748894 .

^ Laczi, Miklós; Hegyi, Gergely; Nagy, Gergely; Pongrácz, Rita; Török, János (2020). "Yellow plumage colour of Great Tits Parus major correlates with changing temperature and precipitation" . Ibis . 162 (1): 232–237. doi : 10.1111/ibi.12761 . ISSN 1474-919X .

^ Swann, H Kirke (1913). A dictionary of English and folk-names of British Birds . Witherby & Co, London. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-7158-1239-6 .

^ Cocker, Mark; Mabey, Richard (2005). Birds Britannica . London: Chatto & Windus. pp. 391–392. ISBN 978-0-7011-6907-7 .

^ Nowakowski, Jarosław K. (2001). "Speed and synchronization of autumn migration of the Great Tit ( Parus major ) along the eastern and the southern Baltic coast" (PDF) . The Ring . 23 (1): 55–71. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011.

^ Palmer TS (1893). The danger of introducing noxious animals and birds . US Department of Agriculture. pp. 104–105.

^ https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/nab/v058n03/p00324-p00330.pdf THE CHANGING SEASONS: Expansions]

^ Long, John L. (1981). Introduced Birds of the World: The worldwide history, distribution and influence of birds introduced to new environments . Terrey Hills, Sydney: Reed. p. 332. ISBN 978-0-589-50260-7 .

^ Jump up to: a b Ehrlich, Paul; Dobkin, David; Wheye, Darryl; Pimm, Stuart (1994). The Birdwatcher's Handbook . Oxford University Press. p. 434 . ISBN 978-0-19-858407-0 .

^ Jump up to: a b Royoma, T (1970). "Factors governing the hunting behaviour and selection of food by the Great Tit ( Parus major L.)". Journal of Animal Ecology . 39 (3): 619–668. doi : 10.2307/2858 . JSTOR 2858 .

^ Mols, C; Visser, M; Jones, Peter (2007). Jones, Peter (ed.). "Great Tits ( Parus major ) Reduce Caterpillar Damage in Commercial Apple Orchards" . PLOS ONE . 2 (2): e202. Bibcode : 2007PLoSO...2..202M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0000202 . PMC 1784073 . PMID 17285148 .

^ Hawkins, T. (1950). "Opening of Milk Bottles By Birds" . Nature . 165 (4194): 435–436. Bibcode : 1950Natur.165..435H . doi : 10.1038/165435a0 .

^ Lefebvre, Louis (1995). "The opening of milk bottles by birds: Evidence for accelerating learning rates, but against the wave-of-advance model of cultural transmission". Behavioural Processes . 34 (1): 43–53. doi : 10.1016/0376-6357(94)00051-H . PMID 24897247 . S2CID 26052031 .

^ Estók, Péter; Zsebők, Sándor; Siemers, Björn M (2010). "Great tits search for, capture, kill and eat hibernating bats" . Biology Letters . 6 (1): 59–62. doi : 10.1098/rsbl.2009.0611 . PMC 2817260 . PMID 19740892 .

^ Krebs, John R. (1971). "Territory and breeding density in the Great Tit, Parus major L". Ecology . 52 (1): 3–22. doi : 10.2307/1934734 . JSTOR 1934734 .

^ Harvey, Paul H; Greenwood, Paul J; Perrins, Christopher M (1979). "Breeding area fidelity of Great Tits ( Parus major )". Journal of Animal Ecology . 48 (1): 305–313. doi : 10.2307/4115 . JSTOR 4115 .

^ Strohbach, Sabine; Curio, Eberhard; Bathen, Andrea; Epplen, Jorg; Lubjuhn, Thomas (1998). "Extrapair paternity in the great tit ( Parus major ): a test of the "good genes" hypothesis" . Behavioral Ecology . 9 (4): 388–396. doi : 10.1093/beheco/9.4.388 .

^ Pigeault, Romain; Cozzarolo, Camille-Sophie; Glaizot, Olivier; Christe, Philippe (2020). "Effect of age, haemosporidian infection and body condition on pair composition and reproductive success in Great Tits Parus major" (PDF) . Ibis . 162 (3): 613–626. doi : 10.1111/ibi.12774 . ISSN 1474-919X .

^ Van Noordwijk, A.J.; McCleery, R.H.; Perrins, C.M. (1995). "Selection for the timing of Great Tit breeding in relation to caterpillar growth and temperature". Journal of Animal Ecology . 64 (4): 451–458. doi : 10.2307/5648 . JSTOR 5648 .

^ Jarvine, Antero (1991). "A meta-analytic study of the effects of female age on laying-date and clutch-size in the Great Tit Parus major and the Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca ". Ibis . 133 (1): 62–67. doi : 10.1111/j.1474-919X.1991.tb04811.x .

^ Perrins, C. M.; McCleery, R. H. (1989). "Laying dates and clutch size in the Great Tit". Wilson Bulletin . 101 (2): 236–253.

^ Wiggins, David A.; Moller, Anders P.; Sorensen, Martin; Brand, L. Arriana (1998). "Island Biogeography and the reproductive ecology of great tits Parus major ". Oecologia . 115 (4): 478–482. Bibcode : 1998Oecol.115..478W . doi : 10.1007/s004420050544 . PMID 28308267 . S2CID 10078007 .

^ Cresswell, Will; McCleery, Robin (2003). "How Great Tits maintain synchronisation of their hatch date with food supply in response to long-term variability in temperature" . Journal of Animal Ecology . 72 (2): 356–366. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2656.2003.00701.x .

^ Galván, Ismael; Amo, Luisa; Sanz, Juan J. (2008). "Ultraviolet-blue reflectance of some nestling plumage patches mediates parental favouritism in great tits Parus major ". Journal of Avian Biology . 39 (3): 277–82. doi : 10.1111/j.0908-8857.2008.04273.x .

^ Wilkin, Teddy A.; King, Lucy E.; Sheldon, Ben C. (2009). "Habitat quality, nestling diet, and provisioning behaviour in great tits Parus major ". Journal of Avian Biology . 40 (2): 135–145. doi : 10.1111/j.1600-048X.2009.04362.x .

^ Dubiec, Anna; Cichoñ, Mariusz (2001). "Seasonal decline in health status of Great Tit ( Parus major ) nestlings". Canadian Journal of Zoology . 79 (10): 1829–1833. doi : 10.1139/cjz-79-10-1829 .

^ Szulkin M, Sheldon BC (2008). "Dispersal as a means of inbreeding avoidance in a wild bird population" . Proc. Biol. Sci . 275 (1635): 703–11. doi : 10.1098/rspb.2007.0989 . PMC 2596843 . PMID 18211876 .

^ Götmark, Frank; Andersson (2005). "Predation by sparrowhawks decreases with increased breeding density in a songbird, the great tit". Oecologia . 142 (2): 177–183. Bibcode : 2005Oecol.142..177G . doi : 10.1007/s00442-004-1715-z . PMID 15480803 . S2CID 35611518 .

^ Götmark, Frank (2002). "Predation by sparrowhawks favours early breeding and small broods in great tits". Oecologia . 130 (1): 25–32. Bibcode : 2002Oecol.130...25G . doi : 10.1007/s004420100769 . PMID 28547022 . S2CID 19909152 .

^ Skwarska, Joanna A.; Kalinski, Adam; Wawrzyniak, Jaroslaw; Banbura, Jerzy (2009). "Opportunity makes a predator: Great Spotted Woodpecker predation on Tit broods depends on nest box design" . Ornis Fennica . 86 (3): 109–112. ISSN 0030-5685 .

^ Dunn, Euan (1977). "Predation by weasels ( Mustela nivalis ) on breeding tits ( Parus spp.) in relation to the density of tits and rodents". Journal of Animal Ecology . 46 (2): 633–652. doi : 10.2307/3835 . JSTOR 3835 .

^ Balat, F (1981). "New Species of Biting Lice (Mallophaga) of the genera Penenirmus and Rostrinirmus " (PDF) . Folia Parasitologica . 28 : 161–68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2008 . Retrieved 12 February 2010 .

^ Jump up to: a b c Rothschild, Miriam ; Clay, Theresa (1953). Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos. A study of bird parasites . London: Collins. pp. 111, 249.

^ Samplonius, Jelmer M.; Both, Christiaan (2019). "Climate Change May Affect Fatal Competition between Two Bird Species" . Current Biology . 29 (2): 327–331.e2. doi : 10.1016/j.cub.2018.11.063 . PMID 30639109 .

^ Jump up to: a b c Nord, Andreas; Metcalfe, Neil B.; Page, Jennifer L.; Huxtable, Anna; McCafferty, Dominic J.; Dawson, Neal J. (2021). "Avian red blood cell mitochondria produce more heat in winter than in autumn" . The FASEB Journal . 35 (5): e21490. doi : 10.1096/fj.202100107R . ISSN 1530-6860 .

^ Jump up to: a b c d Winder, Lucy A.; White, Stewart A.; Nord, Andreas; Helm, Barbara; McCafferty, Dominic J. (20 April 2020). "Body surface temperature responses to food restriction in wild and captive great tits" . Journal of Experimental Biology . 223 (8). doi : 10.1242/jeb.220046 . ISSN 0022-0949 .

^ Perrins, C. M. (1965). "Population fluctuations and clutch-size in the great tit, Parus major L" (PDF) . The Journal of Animal Ecology . 34 (3): 601–647. doi : 10.2307/2453 . JSTOR 2453 .

^ Fuller RA, Tratalos J, Gaston KJ (2009). "How many birds are there in a city of half a million people?" . Diversity and Distributions . 15 (2): 328–337. doi : 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00537.x .

^ Slabbekoorn, Hans; Margriet Peet (2003). "Birds sing at a higher pitch in urban noise". Nature . 424 (6946): 267. Bibcode : 2003Natur.424..267S . doi : 10.1038/424267a . PMID 12867967 . S2CID 4348883 .


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The great tit ( Parus major ) is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. It is a widespread and common species throughout Europe, the Middle East , Central Asia and east across the Palearctic to the Amur River , south to parts of North Africa where it is generally resident in any sort of woodland; most great tits do not migrate except in extremely harsh winters. Until 2005 this species was lumped with numerous other subspecies. DNA studies have shown these other subspecies to be distinct from the great tit and these have now been separated as two distinct species, the cinereous tit of southern Asia, and the Japanese tit of East Asia. The great tit remains the most widespread species in the genus Parus .

The great tit is a distinctive bird with a black head and neck, prominent white cheeks, olive upperparts and yellow underparts, with some variation amongst the numerous subspecies. It is predominantly insectivorous in the summer, but will consume a wider range of food items in the winter months, including small hibernating bats. [2] Like all tits it is a cavity nester, usually nesting in a hole in a tree. The female lays around 12 eggs and incubates them alone, although both parents raise the chicks. In most years the pair will raise two broods. The nests may be raided by woodpeckers , squirrels and weasels and infested with fleas , and adults may be hunted by sparrowhawks . The great tit has adapted well to human changes in the environment and is a common and familiar bird in urban parks and gardens. The great tit is also an important study species in ornithology .

The great tit was described under its current binomial name by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae . [3] Its scientific name is derived from the Latin parus "tit" and maior "larger". [4] Francis Willughby had used the name in the 17th century. [5]

The great tit was formerly treated as ranging from Britain to Japan and south to the islands of Indonesia, with 36 described subspecies ascribed to four main species groups. The major group had 13 subspecies across Europe, temperate Asia and north Africa, the minor group's nine subspecies occurred from southeast Russia and Japan into northern southeast Asia and the 11 subspecies in the cinereus group were found from Iran across south Asia to Indonesia . The three bokharensis subspecies were often treated as a separate species, Parus bokharensis , the Turkestan tit. This form was once thought to form a ring species around the Tibetan Plateau , with gene flow throughout the subspecies, but this theory was abandoned when sequences of mitochondrial DNA were examined, finding that the four groups were distinct ( monophyletic ) and that the hybridisation zones between the groups were the result of secondary contact after a temporary period of isolation. [6] [7]

A study published in 2005 confirmed that the major group was distinct from the cinereus and minor groups and that along with P. m. bokharensis it diverged from these two groups around 1.5 million years ago. The divergence between the bokharensis and major groups was estimated to have been about half a million years ago. The study also examined hybrids between representatives of the major and minor groups in the Amur Valley where the two meet. Hybrids were rare, suggesting that there were some reproductive barriers between the two groups. The study recommended that the two eastern groups be split out as new species, the cinereous tit ( Parus cinereus ), and the Japanese tit ( Parus minor ), but that the Turkestan tit be lumped in with the great tit. [8] This taxonomy has been followed by some authorities, for example the IOC World Bird List . [9] The Handbook of the Birds of the World volume treating the Parus species went for the more traditional classification, treating the Turkestan tit as a separate species but retaining the Japanese and cinereous tits with the great tit, [10] a move that has not been without criticism. [11]

The nominate subspecies of the great tit is the most widespread, its range stretching from the Iberian Peninsula to the Amur Valley and from Scandinavia to the Middle East. The other subspecies have much more restricted distributions, four being restricted to islands and the remainder of the P. m. major subspecies representing former glacial refuge populations . The dominance of a single, morphologically uniform subspecies over such a large area suggests that the nominate race rapidly recolonised a large area after the last glacial epoch . This hypothesis is supported by genetic studies which suggest a geologically recent genetic bottleneck followed by a rapid population expansion. [10]

The genus Parus once held most of the species of tit in the family Paridae , but morphological and genetic studies led to the splitting of that large genus in 1998. The great tit was retained in Parus , which along with Cyanistes comprises a lineage of tits known as the "non-hoarders", with reference to the hoarding behaviour of members of the other clade. The genus Parus is still the largest in the family, but may be split again. [10] Other than those species formerly considered to be subspecies, the great tit's closest relatives are the white-naped and green-backed tits of southern Asia. Hybrids with tits outside the genus Parus are very rare, but have been recorded with blue tit , coal tit , and probably marsh tit . [12]

There are currently 15 recognised subspecies of great tit: [10]

The great tit is large for a tit at 12.5 to 14.0 cm (4.9–5.5 in) in length, and has a distinctive appearance that makes it easy to recognise. The nominate race P. major major has a bluish-black crown , black neck, throat, bib and head, and white cheeks and ear coverts. The breast is bright lemon-yellow and there is a broad black mid-line stripe running from the bib to vent. There is a dull white spot on the neck turning to greenish yellow on the upper nape . The rest of the nape and back are green tinged with olive. The wing-coverts are green, the rest of the wing is bluish-grey with a white wing-bar. The tail is bluish grey with white outer tips. The plumage of the female is similar to that of the male except that the colours are overall duller; the bib is less intensely black, [10] as is the line running down the belly, which is also narrower and sometimes broken. [15] Young birds are like the female, except that they have dull olive-brown napes and necks, greyish rumps, and greyer tails, with less defined white tips. [10]

There is some variation in the subspecies. P. m. newtoni is like the nominate race but has a slightly longer bill, the mantle is slightly deeper green, there is less white on the tail tips, and the ventral mid-line stripe is broader on the belly. P. m. corsus also resembles the nominate form but has duller upperparts, less white in the tail and less yellow in the nape. P. m. mallorcae is like the nominate subspecie
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