The use of common names in idiomatic expressions - Иностранные языки и языкознание курсовая работа

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The use of common names in idiomatic expressions

Theoretical evidence and discuss on idiomatic English: different definitions, meaning, structure and categories of idioms. Characteristic of common names. Comparative analysis and classification of idiomatic expressions with personal and place names.


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3. Practical Chapter. The use of proper names in idioms
3.1 The methodology of the research
The theme of the paper is “The use of common names in idiomatic expressions”.
The subject of the present paper is based on the collecting common names from idiomatic expressions. The term “common names” refers to proper names. Proper names are names of persons, places or certain special things. In the English language proper names are typically capitalized nouns. They have a number of certain features as well - they are not used in the plural and are not preceded by adjectives, articles, numerals, demonstratives, or other modifiers. There are some kinds of proper nouns:
The aim of the work is to analyze the common names of English idioms, their types, features and structure. This paper will show the origins of the proper nouns used in idiomatic expressions.
The following objectives of the research have been set:
1. To provide theoretical evidence and discuss on idiomatic English.
2. To study English idiomatic dictionaries.
3. To compare, analyze and classify idioms with personal and place names.
1. Descriptive-theoretical literary analysis provided a possibility to review numerous issues concerning features of proper nouns.
2. Contrastive linguistic analysis is also used in the work with the aim determining the frequency or intensity of common names usage in relation with idiomatic expressions.
As noted by an increasing number of idiomatic scholars, it is clearly problematic to assume that idioms form a homogeneous class of linguistic items. Careful attention must be paid to the many syntactic, lexical, semantic and pragmatic differences that exist among words and phrases that are generally judged as idiomatic. The investigation of a wide range of idioms clearly demonstrates that many idioms are analyzable and have figurative meanings that are at least partly motivated. Many idioms have individual components that independently contribute to what these phrases figuratively mean as wholes.
The views and approaches such scholars as A. Makkai, M. Everaert, R. Moreno helped to analyze idiomatic English topic in more detailed way.
The paper consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusions, references and practical patterns.
A survey of theoretical issues necessary for the analysis is presented below.
The ultimate roof of the term idiom is the Greek lexeme idioms , meaning “own, private, peculiar” (J. Strassel: 1982:13).
In different dictionaries there could be found quite a lot different explaining what an idiom is. There are some of the definitions:
1. An idiom is an expression whose meaning is not predictable from the usual meanings of its constituent elements or from the general grammatical rules of a language and that is not a constituent of a larger expression of like characteristics (Random House Dictionary: 2009. http://dictionary.reference.com/browde/idiom)
2. Idiom - an expression with a meaning that cannot be guessed from the meanings of the individual words. (English Dictionary for Speaker of Lithuanian, 2000).
3. An idiom typical of the natural way in which someone speaks or writes when they are using their own language. (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English: 2003).
4. Idiom - a group of words that has a special meaning that is different from the ordinary meaning of each separate word. (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English: 2003).
5. Idiom - a form of expression, grammatical construction, phrase, etc., peculiar to a person or language; a phrase which is understood by speakers of a particular language despite its meaning's not being predictable from that of the separate words. (Oxford Talking Dictionary).
6. An idiom is a phrase where the words together have a meaning that is different from the dictionary definitions of the individual words, which can make idioms hard for ESL students and learners to understand (Dictionary of English idioms and idiomatic expressions: www.usingenglish.com.reference/idioms ).
According to Ifill T. (2002:78) idioms are as “those that speaker cannot work out simply by knowing the grammar and the vocabulary of a language”. According to J. Saeed (2003:60) idioms are “words collocated together happen to become fossilized, becoming fixed over time”. This is the reason why idioms are set out as non-compositional.
Idioms are used in a wide variety of contexts and situations. They are often used in spoken language, in situations that range from friendly conversations to business meetings. Idioms are used in written English as well, especially in journalism where writers frequently use them to bring their stories to life.
Knowing the meaning of idioms let understand the smallest refinements of the language. However, it is quite difficult to understand the exact meaning of the idiom of the foreign language because it is related with some kind of problems that are named in the further chapter.
An idiom is a sequence of words which has a different meaning as a group from the meaning it would have if you understood each word separately. Idioms add color to the language, helping us to emphasize meaning and to make our observations, judgments and explanations lively and interesting. They are also very useful tools for communicating a great deal of meaning in just a few words.
Knowing whether an expression receives a literal meaning or an idiomatic meaning is important for natural language processing applications that require some sort of semantic interpretation.
Idioms are pervasive in all styles of language use. The problem they present to the theoretical and computational linguist is not the fact that their meaning cannot be worked out by the usual mechanisms, for if it were not for other factors this could be overcome by treating them as `big' lexical items to be looked up in a list in a fairly straightforward way.
Idiom is defined as expression that does not mean what it literally said. You cannot understand the meaning of whole idiom putting the meanings of each word from which consists idiom together. Put as simply as possible, an idiom is a fixed expression whose meaning cannot be taken as a combination of the meanings of its component parts. Thus, the common phrase kick the bucket has nothing to do with either kicking or buckets, but means simply, “to die.” Idiom has the meaning only as a unit and has lexical and grammatical stability as well. If you look at the individual words, it may not even make sense grammatically. According to M. Everaert (1995), an idiom is an institutionalized expression which overall meaning does not correspond to the combined meanings of its component parts. Many idioms are intuitively nontransparent: their meaning is hard to guess without a special context or previous exposure. In spite of that, very few idioms are fixed in forms. These features we will discussed in our following chapter.
As it was said in our previous chapter, idioms are not mixed in form. One part of the phrase can be let out, for example, somebody has been around the block (a few minutes) can be said without the words a few times , although the meaning remains the same. This technique is also used for idioms which have become clichйs and are therefore often shortened, such as you can lead a horse to water (but you can't make him drink). Some idioms can have any word inserted, depending on what the speaker is describing. For example, in the idiom the ____ of somebody's dreams the underline space indicates that the range of nouns, adjectives, etc which could be inserted is unlimited.
In addition to that, the main idiom can have several less popular versions. For example, sell like hot cakes (go like hot cakes). It shows that idioms are not frozen units. In internal structure of idioms there also could be found some changes. Let us begin with the most minimal way in which an idiom can be altered from its base form: morphology:
a. I will take them to task for their indolence.
b. I am taking them to task for their indolence.
c. I took them to task for their indolence.
d. I have taken them to task for their indolence.
a. George and Simon have their ups and downs.
b. George and Simon are having their ups and downs.
c. George and Simon had their ups and downs.
In these example sets, we will analyze the idioms take NP to task and have one's ups and downs to be the listed forms of the idioms in (1) and (2). These examples clearly show that the verb tense can be changed in the internal structure of the idiom. We can make a conclusion that those idioms which were classified as “completely frozen” exhibit this kind of behavior ( trip the light fantastic vs. tripping the light fantastic vs. tripped the light fantastic ) (M. Everaert: 1995:45).
It has been widely noted that the individual words in an idiom cannot be replaced by synonyms and still retain the idiomatic reading of the phrase. This is what qualifies them as fixed forms. In most non-idiomatic discourse, a speaker can use synonymy to create a new sentence with the same semantic meaning. That means that changing a word from the idiom with its synonym we will not get the synonymic idiom. In spite of that, idioms can be synonymous among themselves. For example:
One thing that is readily noticeable about idioms is that many seem to resist undergoing transformations that similar non-idiomatic constructions can readily undergo while retaining the same sense. For example:
In spite of that sentence is transformed its meaning remains the same.
All these changes can be found in all categories of idioms.
Idioms have been classified into several groups. Many idioms are derived from the names of body parts and bodily functions:
· cover one's back - do something to protect yourself from criticism or future blame;
· blood, sweat, and tears - great personal effort;
· feel (something) in one's bones - sense something, have an intuition about something.
Other big group is idioms derived from animals names:
· as weak as a kitten - weak, sickly;
· hit the bulls-eye - to reach the main point of something;
· dog-eat-dog - ready or willing to fight and hurt others to get what one wants;
· monkey see, monkey do - someone copies something that someone else does.
The third big group is idioms derived from food and preparing it:
· full of beans - to feel energetic, to be in high spirits;
· grist for the mill - something that can be used to bring advantage or profit;
· take the cake - to be the best or worst of something;
· cook (someone's) goose - to damage or ruin someone.
Those are three the most common groups of idioms in English language. All these idioms are based on daily life events. They have risen from daily routine, from following the animal's behavior as well as the human's body reaction to different situations. They are often used in every day's speech and they are quite intelligible.
Other idioms are quite rare in English language. For example, politics idioms:
· body politics - A group of people organized under a single government or authority (national or regional);
· fifth columnist - a member of a subversive organization who tries to help an enemy invade;
· on the stump - politicians are campaigning for support and votes.
One rarer group is idioms based on crimes and police as well:
· new sheriff in town - a new authority figure takes charge;
· after the fact - after something (a crime etc.) has occurred.
These expressions are quite difficult to understand. For example, idiom new sheriff in town could be understood as a fact that a town has really got a new sheriff.
The category with common names in idioms is not the smallest one but it is not the most common one. We could say with some exceptions.
For example, idioms are widely known and understandable as well as common used in English language. This category we will analyze in our work.
· Achilles heel - a person's weak spot;
· Adam's apple - a bulge in the throat, mostly seen in men.
Common name - a noun that is not normally preceded by an article or other limiting modifier, as any or some, and that is arbitrary used to denote a particular person, place, thing without regard to any descriptive meaning the word or phrase may have, as Lincoln, Beth Pittsburgh. (http://dictionary.reference.com). Common names are also called proper names.
According to Valeika (2003:44), “a proper noun is the name of a particular member of a class or of a set of particular members”. Also Valeika (2003) introduces to the idea that the function of a proper noun or name is the same as definite article, because both are particularizes: Smith means the man Smith/the Smith man . Thus, the presented idea reveals the difference between the definite article and proper noun, because the addition of the proper name cause to become the common name semantically unnecessary and it is dropped in the surface structure.
Another difference added by Valeika (2003) concerns the way the two modes of naming explain the problem of the uniqueness of reference: proper names are not always proper, because they may refer to more individual. As the consequence, this shows that proper names may function as common names.
Next, when proper names have no unique reference they behave like common names.
The common meaning of the word or words constituting a proper noun may be unrelated to the object to which the proper noun refers. For example, someone might be named "Tiger Smith" despite being neither a tiger nor a smith. For this reason, proper nouns are usually not translated between languages, although they may be transliterated.
For example, the German surname Knцdel becomes Knodel or Knoedel in English (not the literal Dumpling ). However, the transcription of place names and the names of monarchs, popes, and non-contemporary authors is common and sometimes universal. For example, the Portuguese word Lisboa becomes Lisbon in English; the English London becomes Londres in French; and the Greek ?сйуфпфелЮт ( Aristotelзs) becomes Aristotle in English (http://en.wikipedia.org).
A proper noun is first of all a kind of noun. Like other nouns, a proper noun may label a person, place, or thing, and may label a concrete object or an abstraction. Most proper nouns refer to a specific person - Julius Caesar , a specific place - Istanbul , a specific institution or organization - the Red Cross , or a specific event - the Renaissance . (http://en.wiktionary.org). In English, there are a few typical characteristics which permit proper nouns to be recognized. A proper noun typically :
1. ...has its initial letter capitalized.
3. ...is not preceded by adjectives, articles, numerals, demonstratives, or other modifiers.
A philosophical consideration of proper nouns finds three properties:
· Uniqueness of referent. According to J. S. Mill (1843), proper nouns identify a specific thing, one that is unique. The differentiation, therefore, between general names, and individual or singular names, is primal; and may be considered as the first grand division of names. A general name is closely prйcised, a name which is able of bring truly affirmed, in the same sense, of each of an indefinite number of things. An individual or singular name is a name which is only able of being truly affirmed, in the same sense, of one thing.
· Specificity of label. J. Locke (1869) noted that this property originates from the way in which proper nouns are used to separate one particular item from all other similar ones. Likewise persons, countries, cities, rivers, mountains, and other distinctions of place have usually found peculiar names, and that for the same reason ; they being such as men have often an occasion to mark particularly, and, as it were, set before others in their discourses with them.
· Does not impart connotation or attributes. According to J. S. Mill (1843), proper nouns do not carry meaning other than as a label for a specific object and they are not translated. Thus, man is capable of being truly affirmed of John, Peter, George, and other persons without assignable limits: and it is affirmed of all of them in the same sense; for the word man expresses certain qualities, and when we predicate it of those persons, we categorically state that they all own those qualities. But John is only capable of being truly affirmed of one single person, at least in the same sense. For although there are many persons who bear that name, it is not conferred upon them to indicate any qualities, or anything which belongs to them in common; and cannot be said to be affirmed of them in any sense at all, consequently not in the same sense.
Proper names could be divided into several groups:
In our work we will research place and personal names in the idioms.
Geographical or place names are the nouns we use to refer to specific places and geographic features. They are also called toponyms.
Toponyms can be both place names, real or imaginary, as well as names derived from places or regions. They can be found in many different arenas of industry, enterprise, culture, and current events. It is not unusual to find toponyms used for places that withdraw other places, as well as wars, treaties and agreements, bands, food, and fabric, among other items (http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-toponym.htm). For example, there are many places beginning with the word new that are toponyms named to recall or honor other places. In North America - New Hampshire named after Hampshire , England; New Jersey named for the Isle of Jersey in the English Channel; New Mexico , recalling the country to south; New York, after York , England; and the Canadian province Nova Scotia , which means “New Scotland. ” Toponyms can be found in almost every sphere of our life.
Some modern-day bands have toponyms for their name. Chicago (the American rock band formed) takes its name from the city of Chicago. The Manhattan Transfer (an American vocal group) has a name that is a toponym once-removed: it is named after novel Manhattan Transfer by John Dos Passos, after Manhattan Transfer train station in Harrison, New Jersey. The rock group Styx, originally called The Tradewinds , drew their toponymic second name from the river in Greek mythology. The Shangri-Las, named after the Himalayan utopia in James Hilton's novel, Lost Horizon , was an all-girl American pop trio.
A number of fabrics have toponyms that notice their place of origin. The shirt fabric called Oxford takes its name from Oxford, England. The two thick cotton materials used for pants, denim and jean, are both place names: the first derives from the fact that it came from Nоmes , France - “de Nоmes”, Jeans comes from the French pronunciation - Gкnes - of its city of origin, Genoa .
There are toponyms of food as well. Hamburgers , named for Hamburg, Germany, and frankfurters or hotdogs, named for Frankfurt , Germany. Also, two nicknames for coffee, Java and Mocha , referencing cities in Indonesia and Yemen. Tangerines are a popular fruit named for Tangiers , Morocco, but the Barbados cherry, Natal plum, and Java plum might be less familiar. Using the name "Champagne," a name for sparkling wine, is illegal in a number of parts of the world unless the product originates in the Champagne region of France.
In addition to that, the well-known names are derived from toponyms:
· Event and agreements. For example, Jackon State (Mississippi) - the Jackon Statelkilling in 1970; Maastricht (The Netherlands) - the Maastrict treaty of 1992; Potsdam (Germany) - the Potsdam Conference in 1945. (http://en.wikipedia.org/).
· Cheese: Edam after town of Edam in the Netherlands ; Parmesan , from Parma Italy ; Roquefort after a village in southern France. (http://en.wikipedia.org/).
· Wine: Bordeaux , Chablis , Madeira wine , a fortified wine and Plum in madeira , a dessert - Madeira islands of Portugal. (http://en.wikipedia.org/).
· Corporations: Nokia, Vaasa, Raisio - some corporations whose name is simply the same as their original location. (http://en.wikipedia.org/).
· Derivations from literary or mythical places: Eden , any paradisiacal area, named after the religious Garden of Eden ; El Dorado , any area of great wealth, after the mythical city of gold; utopia , term for organized society - Utopia , fictional republic from the book of the same name. (http://en.wikipedia.org/).
Personal names are the names given to people, but can be used as well for some animals (like race horses) and natural or man-made inanimate objects (like ships and geological formations). As proper nouns, are almost always first-letter capitalized. Exceptions are made when the given individual does not want their name to be capitalized, and the lowercase variant has received regular and established use in reliable third party sources. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Name_of_article). Personal names are transcribed into English spelling but generally not Anglicized or translated between languages; it was also mentioned in the case with place names.
Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin ( Алексбндр Серге м евич Пу м шкин ) was a …
Canute ( sometimes Cnut ; Danish Knud ) is the …
Personal names are also called eponyms . An eponym is a word derived from the names of real, fictional, mythical or spurious character or person ( Ошибка ! Недопустимый объект гиперссылки . ). One who is referred to as eponymous is someone that gives their name to something, e.g. Julian, the eponymous owner of the famous restaurant Julian's Castle.
In different cultures, time periods have often been named after the person who ruled during that period:
· One of the first recorded cases of eponymy occurred in the second millennium BC, when the Assyrians named each year after a high official ( limmu ).
· In Ancient Rome, one of the two formal ways of indicating a year was to mention the two annual consuls who served in that year. For example, the year we know as 59 BCE would have been described as “ the consulship of Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus and Gaius Julius Caesar ”. Under the empire, the consuls would change as often as every two months, but only the two consuls at the beginning of the year would lend their names to that year.
· In the Christian era, many royal households used eponymous dating by regal years. Although The Roman Catholic Church finally used the Anno Domini dating scheme based on the birth of Christ on both the general public and royalty.
· Government administrations or political trends often become eponymous with a government leader. North American examples include the Nixon Era, Trudeaumania, Jeffersonian economics, Jacksonian democracy , McCarthyism, Thatcherism, Kennedy's Camelot or Reaganomics .
· British monarchs have turned eponymous throughout the English speaking world for time periods, fashions, etc. For example, Elizabethan, Edwardian, Georgian and Victorian (www.wikipedia.org).
Places and towns can also be given an eponymous name through a relationship (real or imagined) to an important figure. Peloponnesus , for example, was said to derive its name from the Greek god Pelops . In historical times, new towns have often been named after their founders, discoverers, or after notable individuals. In science and technology, discoveries and innovations are often named after the discoverer (or supposed discoverer) or to honor some other influential workers. Examples are Avogadro's number, the Diesel engine, meitnerium, Alzheimer's disease and the Apgar score. Some books, films, video, and TV shows have one or more eponymous principal characters: Robinson Crusoe, the Harry Potter series, Seinfield and I love Lucy, for example.
There are thousands of eponyms in everyday use of English language today and study of them yields a fascinating insight into the rich heritage of the world's most popular language and its development (http://users.tinyonline.co.uk/gswithenbank/eponyms.htm). The list of themes where eponyms can be found is very long and various:
· Albums: David Bowie : David Bowie; Cher : Cher. (www.wikipedia.org)
· Adages: Murphy's law - ascribed to Edward A. Murphy who stated “If there's more than one way to do a job, and one of those ways will end in disaster, then someone will do it that way.” (www.wikipedia.org)
· Adjectives: parkinsonian - James Parkinson (as in parkinsonian syndrome ), Stalinist - Joseph Stalin . (www.wikipedia.org)
· Cartoon characters: Baby Face Finlayson , from The Beano comic - Baby Face Nelson, Nero, Belgian comic character by Marc Sleen is named after the Roman emperor Nero. (www.wikipedia.org)
· Chemical elements: curium (Cm, 96) - Pierre and Marrie Curie , promethium (Pm, 61) - Prometheus , a Titan from Greek mythology. (www.wikipedia.org)
· Human anatomical parts: Achilles tendom - Achilles , Greek mythological character, Adam's apple - Adam , Biblical character. (www.wikipedia.org)
· Ideologies: Leninism - after Vladimir Lenin , Maoism - after Mao Zedong. (www.wikipedia.org)
· Inventions: Braille - Louis Braille , diesel engine - Rudolph Diesel . (www.wikipedia.org)
· Mathematical theorems: Ptolemaios theorem (geometry), Atkinson's theorem (operator theory). (www.wikipedia.org)
· Prizes, awards and medals: Nobel Prize - Albert Nobel , O. Henry Awards - O. Henry. (www.wikipedia.org)
3. Practical Chapter. The u se of proper names in idioms
3.1 The methodology of the Research
The aim of the research work is to analyze the use of proper names in English idioms and to identify origins of these names. Idioms were classified into two groups: with personal names and with place names. The definitions of the collocated idioms were presented as well and they were illustrated with examples. The scope of the work is 97 idioms which were selected from the following sources:
· Longman Idioms Dictionary (1999).
The distribution of all taken examples is shown in figure No. 1.
Research methods employed in the work are as follow:
· Descriptive-theoretical literary analysis provided a possibility to review numerous issues concerning features of proper nouns.
· Statistical method - was salutary for the processing of the results of the empirical part of the research.
The English language has quite a long list of idioms. Idioms with personal and place names among all the idioms are not the prevailing ones. To compare both idioms with personal and place names researched in our work we can draw a conclusion than idioms with personal names are used more frequently in the English language. In our sources we have found only 24 ones with place names and even 73 idioms with personal names, in percent style, accordingly 25 % and 75 %. For example:
· Be robbing Peter to pay Paul - to take money from one part of a system or organization that needs it and use it for another part of the system or organization, so that you deal with one difficulty but still have problems. (Longman Idiom Dictionary:1999:261). Idiom with personal names.
· New York minute - (USA) if something happens in a New York minute, it happens very fast. (www.usingenglish.com). Idiom with place name.
We have analyzed 73 idioms with personal names and while analyzing the idiom we have noticed that they could be divided into groups according to their origins. We distinguished the following groups:
3. Names based on characters of the books, films, cartoons etc.
4. Names derived from folk mythology.
Results of this analysis are shown in figure № 2.
Figure № 2.Origin of personal names in idioms
According to the results we made conclusions that religion and mass media influence people's language the most. Idioms with these names are quite popular and very often used in spoken language. For example, idioms based on religion characters:
1. Raise Cain - to complain a lot about something in an angry or noisy way because you are determined to get what you want (www.usingenglish.com).
2. Put the fear of God into somebody - to make someone feel frightened of doing something wrong by making them realize the bad things that could happen if they do it (Longman Idioms Dictionary: 1999:139).
3. Adam's apple - the Adam's apple is a bulge in the throat, mostly seen in men (www.usingenglish.com).
Let us see the origin of the name Cain - this person was the first murderer according to scriptural accounts in the Bible - Genesis 4 and in the Qur'an - 5:27-32 . The biblical account, from the King James' Version, tells us how Cain and Abel, the two sons of Adam and Eve, bring offerings to God, but only Abel's is accepted. Cain kills Abel in anger and is cursed by God ( Ошибка ! Недопустимый объект гиперссылки . ).
The next big group is idioms with personal names which are taken from famous books, songs, cartoons. For example:
1. Rip van Winkle - Rip van Winkle is a character in a story that slept for twenty years, so if someone is a Rip van Winkle, they are behind the times and out of touch with what is happening now (www.usingenglish.com).
2. Mickey Mouse - something that is intellectually trivial or not of a very high standard (www.usingenglish.com).
3. Live a life of Riley - used in order to say that someone has a very comfortable, easy life without having to work hard or worry about money (Longman Idioms Dictionary: 1999:210).
Let us look at the origin of the name Riley - this phrase originated in a popular song of the 1880s, “Is That Mr. Reilly?” by Pat Rooney, which described, what its hero would do if he suddenly came into a fortune (http://www.answers.com/topic/life-of-riley).
Idioms with personal names that are related to real persons are also often used in the English language. We have foun
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