The History of English . Реферат. Другое.
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Pages
Introduction…………………………………………………………….3
I. Old English …………………………………………………………...3-17
a). Celtic
Tribes…………………………………………………………3-4
b). The
Romans…………………………………………………………4-10
c). Germanic
Tribes…………………………………………………….10-15
d). The Norman
French………………………………………………..15-16
II. Middle English ……………………………………………………....16-19
III. Mordent English …………………………………………………...20-22
Conclusion……………………………………………………………....22-24
List of
Literature………………………………………………………..26
Supplement……………………………………………………………...27
Why do
people all over the world learn foreign languages? Perhaps because the world
is getting smaller, in a way: nations are more closely linked with each other
than ever before, companies operate world-wide, scientists of different
nationalities co-operate, and tourists travel practically everywhere. The
ability to communicate with people from other countries is getting more and
more important. And learning foreign languages broadens your horizons, too!
Before
learners of a foreign language are able to communicate, they have to acquire
many skills. They must learn to produce unfamiliar sounds. They must build up
a vocabulary. They must learn grammar rules and how to use them. And, last
but not least, they must develop listening, speaking, reading and writing
skills and learn how to react in a variety of situations.
Two
thousand years ago there was an Iron Age Celtic culture throughout the British
Isles. It seems that the Celts, who had been arriving from Europe from the
eighth century BC onwards, intermingled with the peoples who were already
there. We know that religious sites that had been built long before the arrival
of the Celts continued to be used in the Celtic period.
For people in Britain today, the chief significance of
the prehistoric period (for which no written records exist) is its sense of
mystery. This sense finds its focus most easily in the astonishing monumental
architecture of this period, the remains of which exist throughout the country.
Wiltshire, in south-western England, has two spectacular examples: Silbury
Hill, the largest burial mound in Europe, and Stonehenge. Such places have a
special importance for anyone interested in the cultural and religious
practices of prehistoric Britain. We know very little about these practices,
but there are some organizations today (for example, the Order of Bards, Ovates
and Druids – a small group of eccentric intellectuals and mystics) who base
their beliefs on them.
One more turn of our Time Machine and it took me into
the 1 st century of our era. At that time Romans came into Britain,
they ruled the country for 400 years. So, you can guess that many Latin words
came later into the English language through Celts, because, as you know,
Romans spoke Latin.
The Roman province of Britannia most of present-day
England and Wales. The Romans imposed their own way of life and culture, making
use of the existing Celtic aristocracy to govern and encouraging this ruling
class to adopt Roman dress and Roman language. The Romans never went to Ireland
and exerted an influence, without actually governing there, over only the
southern part of Scotland. It was during this time that a Celtic tribe called
the Scots migrated from Ireland to Scotland, where they became allies of the
Picts (another Celtic tribe) and opponents of the Romans. This division of the
Celts into those who experienced Roman rule (the Britons in England and Wales)
and those who did not (the Gaels in Ireland and Scotland) may help to explain
the development of two distinct branches of the Celtic group of languages.
The remarkable thing about the Romans is that, despite
their long occupation of Britain, they left very little behind. To many other
parts of Europe they bequeathed a system of law and administration which forms
the basis of the modern system and a language which developed into the modern
Romance family of languages. In Britain, they left neither. Moreover, most of
their villas, baths and temples, their impressive network of roads, and the
cities they founded, including Londinium (London), were soon destroyed or fell
into disrepair. Almost the only lasting reminder of their presence are
place-names like Chester, Lancaster and Gloucester, which include variants of
the Roman word castra (a military camp).
Roman rule lasted for 4 centuries. There are many
things in Britain today to remind of the Romans: wells, roads, walls.
And delve, and measure, and compare,
To guard their province against the Picts and Scots
who lived in the hills of Scotland the Romans built a high wall, a military
barrier seventy-three miles long. It was called “Hadrian’s Wall” because it was
built by command of the Emperor Hadrian. Long stretches of “ HADRIAN’S
WALL” have remained to this day.
In the capital of Britain you can see the fragments of
the old London wall built by the Romans.
What really happened in AD 61? In AD 61 the king of
the Celtic tribe Iceni died. Before he died he had named Roman Emperor Nero as
his heir. He hoped that this would put his family and kingdom under the
Emperor’s protection. But the result was the exact opposite of his hopes. His
kingdom was plundered by centurions, his private property was taken away, his
widow Boadicea was flogged, his daughters were deprived of any rights, his
relatives were turned into slaves. Boadicea’s tribe rose to rebellion. Boadicea
stood at the head of a numerous army. More than 70,000 Romans were killed
during the revolt. But the Britons had little chance against an experienced,
well-armed Roman army. The rising was crushed, Boadicea took poison to avoid
capture.
Her monument on the Thames Embankment opposite Big Ben
remind people of her harsh cry: ”Liberty of death” which has echoed down the
ages.
Some of the English words relating to meals are of
Latin origin, they were borrowed from the Romans in ancient times. The Romans
in the period of their flourishing and expansion came into contact with the
Germanic tribes, or the Teutons, who later moved to Britain and formed there
the English nation. The Romans were a race with higher civilization than the
Teutons whom they considered barbarians. They taught the Teutons many useful
things and gave them very important words that the forefathers of the English
brought with them to Britain and that remained in the English language up to
now. Kitchen and table are Latin words borrowed in those far-off
days, that show a revolution in culinary arrangements; dish, kettle and
cup also became known to the Teutons at that time.
The early words of Latin origin give us a dim picture
of Roman trades traveling with their mules and asses the paved roads or the
German provinces, their chests and boxes and wine-sacks full of goods that they
profitably bargained with the primitive ancestors of the nowadays English. Wine
was one of the first items of trade between the Romans and the Teutons. That’s
how this word came into use.
The Teutons knew only one fruit – apple, they
did not grow fruit trees or cultivated gardens, but they seem to have been
eager to learn, for they borrowed pear, plum, cherry.
The Teutons were an agricultural people, under the
influence of the Romans they began to grow beet, onion.
Milk was one of the main kinds of food with the
Teutons, but the Romans taught them methods of making cheese and butter
for milk.
Among other culinary refinements that came to the
Teutons from the Romans are spices: pepper, mint.
Judging by the Latin borrowings of that period the
ancestors of English were very much impressed by Roman food, weren’t they?
The word “calendar” came to us
from Latin. In the Latin there was a word “calendarium”. It meant “a
record-book”. Money-lenders kept a special book, in which they recorded to whom
they lent money and how much interest they will get. This book was called
“calendarium” because interest was paid on the “Calends”. By the Calends the
Romans named the first day of each month.
Time passed, the old meaning was forgotten. “Calendar” began to mean the record of
days, weeks, months within a year.
This is a story of the word “calendar”. But the story
of how a calendar was made is still more interesting indeed. We know that a
calendar provides an easy way to place a day within the week, month or year.
But it is not easy to make a calendar. The trouble is that the length of a year
is determined by the length of time the earth takes to revolve once on its own
axis. But the earth does not take an equal number of days to complete its year.
It needs 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds. Obviously you cannot
divide a day of 24 hours into that. And the problem is further complicated
because the month is determined by the length of time it takes the moon to go
around the earth, which is 29 ½ days into 365 ¼ days, minus 11 minutes
and 14 seconds. The result is that most calendars were messes.
The English got their calendar from the Romans. But at
first the Romans had a very bad calendar. They had ten month of varying length,
and then they added enough days at the end to make the year right. Besides the
politicians changed the length of the months as they wished. They could change
the length of the month to keep themselves in office longer and to leave less
time for their opponents. I can’t imagine that somebody will reduce June, July,
August to two weeks each, and will take away more than half my summer vacation?
Will you like that? Of course, not.
The calendar varied so much that by the time of Julius
Caesar January came in August.
Meanwhile a very good calendar had been worked out in
Asia Minor and was in use in Egypt. Julius Caesar, a great Roman emperor,
changed it a little to fit the Roman customs and introduced it in Rome. This
calendar was called after him “the Julian Calendar”. As a matter of fact,
Caesar only gave the orders; he had the advice of a Greek astronomer named
Sosigenes. This calendar worked well for hundred years. But it provided only
for exact figure of 365 days a year and an extra day in every four years, it
did not count minutes and seconds. So, once more, the calendar year was getting
farther and farther from the year of the earth’s revolution around the sun.
Then in 1582 another change of calendar took place.
The Roman Pope Gregory XII suppressed ten days in 1582 and started new
calendar. The English people adopted the Gregorian Calendar in 1752. And for a
time all dates were given two ways: one for the New Style, one for the Old
Style.
Now nobody uses the Old Style any more, but of course
the calendar is not quite accurate yet. Still it will be a long time before we
have to add or subtract another day.
The year is divided into months and every month has
its own name. Now we’d like to investigate how the names of months appeared.
But first, let’s think of the word “month” itself.
A month is a measure of time. It is a very old word. It goes back to Indo-European
base. Long time ago people probably- had
only three measures of time - year, which was the four seasons; a day which
was the period from one sunrise to the next; and a month, which had the period
from one moon to the next.
So, the Indo-European base “me-“
came into Old English, and became “mona”. The word meant "a measure of
time". Then it began to mean “moon”, since the moon measured time. Later
suffix "-th" was added to the end of the word; the word
"monath" meant the period of time which the moon measured. Still
later the English people dropped the "a" and called it "month”.
And now, stories
of the names of months. The Modem English names for the months of the year all
come from the Latin. But before the English people adopted the Latin names they
had their native names. And, in fact, in some cases the native names are more
interesting than the Latin ones.
The first month of
the year is January. January is the month of Janus. Janus was a Roman
God of the beginning of things. Janus had two faces: on the front and the back
of the head. He could look backwards into the past and forward to the beginning
year. January is a right name for the first month of the New Year, isn't it? On
the New Year eve we always think of what we have done in the past year and we
are planning to do better in the New Year.
Now, the Old
English had its own name for January. It was “Wulf-Monath", which means
“month of wolves". To-day England is thickly populated and a very
civilized country and it is hard, to imagine that their was a time when wolves
roamed the island. In the cold of the deep winter they would get so hungry they
would come into the towns to look for food, and so January was called “the
month of the wolves".
The name of February
comes from the Latin “februa” - "purification". It was a month when
the ancient Romans had a festival of purification.
Before the English
adopted the Latin name, they called this month “Sprate-Kale-Month”. “Kale” is a
cabbage plant, "sprote" means to sprout. So, it was “the month when cabbages sprout”
March is a month of Mar's, the Roman
God of war. March was the earliest warm time of the year when the Romans could
start a war. Before the time of Julius Caesar the Roman year began with March
which was then the first month of the year.
The Old English
name for March was "Hlyd-Monath", which means "the month of
noisy winds". March in Britain often comes with strong winds. By the way,
this explains the saying: "If March comes in like a lion, it will go out like
a lamb".
There are a few
stories about the meaning of the name “ April”! The most spread one is a
pretty story that the month was named from a Latin word “aperire" – “to
open”. It is a month when buds of trees and flowers begin to open.
The English before
they adopted the Latin names, called April "Easter-Monath”, the month of
Easter.
“May” is named for the Roman goddess
of growth and increase, Maia. She was the Goddess of spring, because in spring
everything was growing, flourishing, increasing.
The English name
is not so poetic. They called the month "Thrimilce", which means
something like “to mi1k three times”. In May the cows give so much milk that
the farmers had to milk them three times a day.
Month of "June"
was so called after the Junius family of Rome, one of the leading clans of
ancient Rome. Besides, the Roman festival of Juno, the Goddess of Moon, was
celebrated on the first day of the month.
We think of June
as the month of brides and roses, but to the Anglo-Saxons it was
"Sere-Monath", the “dry month”.
“July” is the month of Julius Caesar.
The month began to be called that in the year when Julius Caesar was killed.
The English called July “Maed-Monath”, “meadow
month”, because the meadows are in bloom in July.
Now, comes “ August”.
This month was once called “sexillis”, as it was the sixth month from March,
with which, as you remember, the year once opened. It was then changed into
August in honour of the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar, the nephew of Julius
Caesar. This man was chosen by Julius Caesar as his heir, he took the name
Caesar, and was given the title “Augustus” by the Roman Senate. This month was
“a lucky Month” for Augustus Caesar. By the way, Augustus refused to have
fewer days in his month of August than there were in the month of July. So he
borrowed a day from February and added it to August; that is why August has 31
days.
The Old English
name for August was "Wead-Monath", the month of weeds. You know, the
Old English word "weed" meant vegetation in generale.
“September”, “October”, “November”
and “December” are just "seventh", "eighth",
"ninth" and "tenth" months of the year. You remember that
before the Romans changed their calendar, March was the first month.
The English had
more descriptive names for these month. September was called
"Harfest-Monath", "the harvest month". October was
"Win-Monath", "the wine month". November was
"Bloo-Monath", because in November the English sacrificed cattle to
their gods. December was “Mid-Winter-Monath”, because this month was the middle
month of winter.
At the beginning of the 5th
century the Romans left the islands, they had tо save their own country from barbarians. If you
want to know what events followed after that, turn on the Time Machine again.
So, here we are, in the 5th century, This is the time of the birth of the
English language. Тhe Germanic
tribes of Angles, Sаxоns and Jutes invaded thе misty fertile island. Some of
the native Britons were killed, mаnу others fled from the invaders
"аs from fire" into the hillу parts of the country. Anglеs, Saxons аnd Jutes spread all over the fertile lаnds of the Isles. Gradually thеу bесаmе one nation - English. They developed one
language - English. As historians write, "thе English language arrived in Britain on the point
of а sword"! The реорlе оf that timе of thе history аrе called Аng1о-Sахоns, their language is оld English оr Ang1о-Saxon as well.
Тhе next destination оf оur Тimе Масhinе is the 7th century, when Christiаnity was introducеd in Britain, monasteries with sсhools аnd libraries were set uр all оver thе соuntry. Тhе English language was
considerably enriched bу the Latin
woгds.
Now, with the help of the Тimе Масhinе we'll fly over into the 8th сеntuгу. Аt this time the ancient Scandinavians, cаlled the Vikings, began to гаid Britаin. Тhе Vikings continued thеir wars with the English until the timе the Ang1о-Saxоn king Alfred thе Great made а treaty with them аnd gave them а раrt of the country, that was саlled "Danelaw". Тhе Vikings settled thеrе, married Еnglish wives аnd bеgan peaceful life on the territory of Britain. Later military conflicts
resumed again, but by the 11th century they were over. The influence of these
events оn the English lаnguagе was great, indeed. А lаrge number of Scandinavian words саmе intо Еnglish from "Danes" as thе Ang1o-Saxons called all the
Vikings.
One reason why Roman Britannia disappeared so quickly
is probably that its influence was largely confined to the towns. In the
countryside, where most people lived, farming methods had remained unchanged
and Celtic speech continued to be dominant.
The Roman occupation had been a matter of colonial
control rather than large-scale settlement. But, during the fifth century, a
number of tribes from the north-western European mainland invaded and settled
in large numbers. Two of these tribes were the Angles and the Saxons. These
Anglo-Saxons soon had the south-east of the country in their grasp. In the west
of the country their advance was temporarily halted by an army of Celtic Britons
under the command of the legendary King Arthur. Nevertheless, by the end of the
sixth century, they and their way of life predominated in nearly all of England
and in parts of southern Scotland. The Celtic Britons were either Saxonized or
driven westwards, where their culture and language survived in south-west
Scotland, Wales and Cornwall.
The Anglo-Saxons had little use for towns and cities.
But they had a great effect on the countryside, where they introduced new
farming methods and founded the thousands of self-sufficient villages which
formed the basis of English society for the next thousand or so years.
The Anglo-Saxons were pagan when they came to Britain.
Christianity spread throughout Britain from two different directions during the
sixth and seventh centuries. It came directly from Rome when St Augustine
arrived in 597 and established his headquarters at Canterbury in the south-east
of England. It had already been introduced into Scotland and northern England
from Ireland, which had become Christian more than 150 years earlier. Although
Roman Christianity eventually took over the whole of the British Isles, the
Celtic model persisted in Scotland and Ireland for several hundred years. It
was less centrally organized, and had less need for a strong monarchy to
support it. This partly explains why both secular and religious power in these
two countries continued to be both more locally based and less secure than it
was elsewhere in Britain throughout the medieval period.
Britain experience another wave of Germanic invasions
in the 8 th century. These invaders, known as Vikings, Horsemen or
Danes, came from Scandinavia. In the ninth century they conquered and settled
the extreme north and west of Scotland, and also some coastal regions of
Ireland. Their conquest of England was halted when they were defeated by King
Alfred of the Saxon kingdom of Wessex. This resulted in an agreement which
divided England between Wessex, in the south and west, and the “Danelaw” in the
north and east.
However, the cultural differences between Anglo-Saxons
and Danes were comparatively small. They led roughly the same way of life and
spoke two varieties of the same Germanic tongue (which combined to form the
basis of modern English). Moreover, the Danes soon converted to Christianity.
These similarities made political unification easier, and by the end of the
10th century England was one kingdom with a Germanic culture throughout.
Most of modern-day Scotland was also united by this
time, at least in name, in a Gaelic kingdom.
Paopla in Anglo-Saxon times.
Living uncomfortably close to the natural world, were wall aware that though
creation is inarticulate it is animate, and that every created thing, every
“with”, had its own personality.
The riddle is a
sophisticated and harmless for of invocation by imitation: the essence of it is
that the poet, by an act of imaginative identification assumes the personality
of some crested thing - an animal, a plant, a natural force.
The specialists
consider that they know not enough about The Exeter Book collection of riddles.
Ridding was certainly a popular pastime among the Anglo-Saxons, especially in
the monasteries, and there are extant collections (in Latin, of course,) from
the pens of Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne, Tatwin, Archbishop of Canterbury and
others.
The provenance and genesis of
the collection are unknown, and from internal evidence one can only draw the
modest conclusion that the ninety-five riddles were not written by one man.
But “pupilla”, a little girl, also meant “a doll”. It
is easy to understand why, isn’t it? Now, if you look into the pupil of
someone’s eye when the light is just right, you can see your reflection. Your
figure, by the way, is very, very small like a tiny doll. The Romans named the
black circle in the eye “pupilla” because of the doll they could see there. And
the word came into the English as “pupil” as well. And thus, we have in the
English language two words that are spelt the same and have the same origin,
but mean different things: “pupil” – a student, and “pupil” – a black circle in
the center of your eye.
Professor casts a quick glance at the wall and noticed
a map there. “This map is made of paper. But the word itself meant cloth
once. This word came into English from Latin, the Latin mappa was
cloth. First maps were drawn on fabrics. In Latin the combination of the
words appeared: mappa mundi – “cloth of the word”. It was the first
representation of the world as a drawing on the cloth. Later maps began to be
made of paper, but the word remained.
By another route the same word came into English for
the second time. In Late Latin this word was corrupted into nappa, and
later, through French, it entered the English language with the new meaning of
napkin. ”
“When a teacher asks you a question. She expects you
will give a correct answer. Answer is a very strange word. Its spelling
makes no sense until you know its origin. This is a very old word. In Old
English the noun was andswaru and the verb – andswearing. So, you
see, it consisted of two parts: and and swear. The word and
at that time meant against; swear meant to give a solemn oath. In
the youth of the English language andswaru was “ a solemn oath made
against an accusation”. A man had to pronounce a solemn in reply to an
accusation, to prove that it is wrong. In the course of historical development
the word lost its solemnity and it means now a reply, to reply. Any
little child answer you back today.”
Professor History remarks, “ I see that some of you
write with a ballpoint pen, others with a pencil, and there are some who write
with a fountain pen. So, you can’t do without ink, after all. A simple
three-letter word ink comes from a nine-letter ancestor that meant a
branding iron. And now a few steps away from the skill of writing towards the skill of healing wounds. When we have a
wound we cauterize it, we burn it with heat or with a chemical in order to
close it and prevent it from becoming infected. The ancient Greeks used to
cauterize a wound as we do, and the grandparent word of cauterize is kauterion,
a branding iron. The Greek not only sealed wounds with heat, but they used
much the same process in art for sealing fast the colours of their painting. It
was customary then to use wax colours fixed with heat or, as they expressed it,
encauston, burned in. In Latin this word changed to encaustum,
and it became the name for a kind of purple ink that the emperors used
when they signed their official documents. In Old French encaustum
became enque. English adopted the word as enke or inke,
that is how today we have our ink , coloured liquid used for writing or
printing.”
“The start of spoken language is buried in mystery and
in a tangle of theories,” Professor History begins his lecture. “The history of
written language also disappears in the jungles, in the deserts and far fields
of unrecorded time. But at least the words that have to do with writing tell us
much about the early beginning of the art and the objects that were used to
record the written symbols.
The word write was spelled writan in Old
English. It first meant to scratch, and it is exactly what the
primitives did on their birch-bark or shingles with sharp stones and others
pointed instruments. In the more sophisticated lands that surrounded the
Mediterranean the papyrus plant was used instead of the bark of the trees; as you
already know, that gave us the word paper .
Pen with
which we write now, in its Latin form penna, meant a feather and in some
ancient collections you can still see quill pens. And pencil that we
hold inherits its name from the Latin penicillum, meaning a little
tail , and this refers to the time when writing was done with a tiny brush
that looked indeed like a little tail.
The term letter designating a written symbol, a
letter of the alphabet is thought to be relative to the Latin word linere,
to smear, to leave a dirty mark on some surface. Isn’t it a good description of
some of the early writing?
But what is written should be read. In read we
have an odd little word, from the Old English raedan, which meant first to
guess, to discern. And again it is just what you had to do to interpret
what was scratched on wooden shingles. Anything that had to be interpreted was
called a raedels. Later on people began to think that the word raedels
was a plural because of the “s” on the end. A new singular, raedel was
formed and here is the ancestor of our word riddle. Finally the word read
took on its modern meaning: if you can read, you have the ability to look at
and understand what is written.
Of course the basis of all writing is language.
But it is first of all, a spoken activity, and hence this noun is derived from
a word referring to the organ of speech primarily involved. In this case it is
the French word language , which goes back to the Latin lingua ,
tongue. The English, though, retained their native word to name that soft
movable part inside your mouth whish you see for tasting and licking and for
speaking”, a tongue. Sometimes you may hear the word tongue used in the
meaning of language, but it is an old-fashioned and literary use.
If you want to read what is written in a foreign
language, you need a dictionary. The term dictionary comes from the
Latin word dictio, from dico, say or speak. A dictionary is
really a record of what people say, of the pronunciation, spellings, and
meanings that they give to words.”
In Old English there was a different word with which
the Englishmen called bread, it was half . But then as a result of the
Vikings invasion and Scandinavian influence on the English language a new word
of the same meaning entered the English vocabulary from Scandinavian: cake. Since
the English had already their own word (half), they started to use the
word cake for a special type of bread. First it referred to a small loaf
of bread of flat and round shape. From the 15 th century it began to
mean sweet food, as it does now.
To the Scandinavians, living in Britain, called their
bread by the word brauth. The English had a similar word – bread
meaning a lump, a piece of bread. Under the influence of the
Scandinavian language the word bread widened its meaning and began to
mean bread in general, while the word loaf (from Old English half )
narrowed
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Кровоснабжение эндокринных желез.
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Курсовая работа по теме Актуальные проблемы и пути совершенствования налога на прибыль организаций в Российской Федерации
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Медицинское Страхование Дипломная Работа
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Курсовая работа по теме Связи с общественностью в Вооруженных Силах
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Сочинение По Картине Крестьянские Дети
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Контрольная работа: Обьект,предмет,задачи и функции педагогики
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