The German Science
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Science has always had a high priority in Germany. How did the scientific system in Germany develop from its beginnings in the 14th century until today and what are the most important fields of research?
Germany, the self-proclaimed “nation of poets and thinkers”, can look back on a long tradition of scientific research. The first German universities were established in the 14th and 15th century, such as in Cologne, Heidelberg and Leipzig. As was typically the case during the Middle Ages, there was a strong bond between universities and the church. The academic subjects taught there were usually theology, legal theory and medicine. Over the following centuries, many universities educated the administrators of the many principalities in particular, which existed within the region known as Germany today.
From the 17th century, the scientific revolution and the Age of Enlightenment ushered in a fundamental change within science itself and the scientific system. At the universities, the theological faculties lost their influence. New institutions, faculties and subjects were established, and academies were considered learned societies for the promotion of scientific fields. This was a development that occurred throughout Europe, including Germany. As industrialisation took hold, institutes of technology were established, such as in Braunschweig, Freiburg and Karlsruhe.
In 19th-century Prussia – a powerful kingdom within the German Confederation – the politician and diplomat Wilhelm von Humboldt was responsible for higher education. He was the brother of the polymath Alexander von Humboldt, and as an advocate of the Enlightenment, he propagated a new model of higher education, involving the integral combination of research and education. This Humboldtian model still guides higher education in Germany to this day and has also had an impact on higher education abroad.
In 1911, the Kaiser Wilhelm Society was founded as an umbrella organisation dedicated to the advancement of fundamental sciences. Its aim was to cover the high financial expenses of scientific research and, against the backdrop of scientific progress particularly in the United States, to establish top, modern research institutes in Germany. After the Second World War, most of these institutes joined the renowned Max Planck Society.
The period of National Socialism from 1933 to 1945 had a dramatic effect on German science. Scientific fields were expected to support the abhorrent ideology of the Nazis. Many great researchers had to fear persecution and even worse. Many of them therefore fled to other countries. It took a while for the institutions of research and higher education to recover from that time and the associated loss of highly educated people.
After the war, science was seen as a means to move on and develop, in both East and West Germany. Additionally, there was fierce competition between both states, which also played out in the realm of science and technology. This actually resulted in driving progress on both sides.
The 1960s in particular brought a huge transformation within the West German education system. Access to higher education was opened up to more disadvantaged social strata, and many new universities were established, including the universities of Konstanz, Bochum and Bremen.
Following the political transformation in East Germany, a number of professors and employees had to leave their jobs due to their cooperation with the East German system. The research institutes often became part of the overarching research organisations. Of the institutes of further education, the Humboldt University of Berlin and the Technical University of Dresden were honoured as universities of excellence.
Science is an important topic within German society, politics and the economy. According to the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, in 2016 around 2.9 percent of GDP was spent on research and development. In comparison, according to the OECD, the USA spent 2.7 percent of its GDP on research and development, the UK 1.7 percent, and Switzerland 3.4 percent. The overall average among the OECD states is 2.3 percent.
Since 2005, top universities have been receiving special financial support from the state in connection with the Excellence Strategy (formerly: Excellence Initiative). As part of the Pact for Research and Innovation, the public financial support for the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) and the four major research organisations is fixed. The High-Tech Strategy is a political instrument to transform research findings into applied science and economic applications.
Universities and research institutions are important employers in Germany. More than 700,000 people – professors, scientific staff and non-academic staff – are employed at the universities alone, without considering other public and private institutions of research.
Young scientists are particularly encouraged in Germany. The number of doctoral students and scientific staff in qualifying jobs is steadily rising. Many of them are employed in projects funded by third parties.
Students and researchers from abroad are highly welcome, and they are able to utilise excellent support structures like the German Academic Exchange Service, in order to prepare and organise their stay in Germany.
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The range of scientific fields is huge: fundamental research plays an important role in all sciences in Germany. On the other hand, engineering, the chemical industry and high technology are key branches of the German economy. For this reason, there is a high commitment to applied sciences. According to the public German Research Foundation (DFG), the engineering sciences receive the most public financial support by far, followed by life sciences such as medicine and biology. At third place, the humanities in Germany have an important standing because of their long tradition, especially among the well-educated public.
In any case, most students take courses in law, economics and social sciences, followed by courses in engineering sciences.
Students in Germany by subject in the winter semester 2017/18
Agricultural, forestry and nutrition sciences, and veterinary medicine
Scientific education is available at public or private universities and at universities of applied sciences (known as ‘Fachhochschulen’). In addition, there are colleges of art, film and music. In accordance with the European Bologna Process, most study subjects conclude with a bachelor’s or a master’s degree. Doctoral degrees can be achieved at universities, but not typically from universities of applied sciences. Since lifelong learning has become an increasingly important issue, many universities have established professional education and special master’s programmes.
Scientific research is conducted at regular universities in particular as well as in a complex network of public research institutions, for example the Max Planck Institutes. There are also private research institutes and, of course, research and development departments in business enterprises.
Current job vacancies from the fields of science and research
2021-03-23 Max Planck Institut für europäische Rechtsgeschichte Frankfurt am Main
2021-03-30 Academy of Fine Arts Vienna Wien (Österreich)
2021-03-30 Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen Tübingen
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With a national election this month, Germany proves that foresight and stability can power research.
Under the watch of Angela Merkel, Germany has invested heavily in energy innovation.
Ask any German researcher why the country’s science base is blooming, and they are bound to mention Chancellor Angela Merkel. The world’s most powerful woman, they say, has not forgotten her roots as an East German physicist.
During a decade of global financial turbulence, her government has increased annual science budgets in a stable, predictable, quintessentially German way. It has spurred competition among universities and improved collaboration with the country’s unique publicly funded research institutions. Under Merkel’s watch, Germany has maintained its position as a world leader in areas such as renewable energy and climate; and with the guarantee of strong support for basic research, its impact in other sectors has grown.
Foreign researchers are increasingly choosing to make their careers in Germany rather than opting for traditional brain magnets such as the United States or the United Kingdom. With its safe-but-dull reputation, Germany is starting to look like the tortoise to their hare. And as the country prepares for a national election on 24 September, most onlookers expect the trends to continue.
The reasons behind Germany’s success go beyond science budgets or some sort of ‘Merkel effect’, says Wolfgang Schön, a director of the Max Planck Institute for Tax Law and Public Finance in Munich and vice-president of the DFG, Germany’s main university-research funding agency. Like Merkel, the country has deep science roots, he says.
Germany was a world leader in science and technology before the turbulence of the twentieth century; it established traditions that many countries still follow. Although it struggles with the remnants of male-dominated hierarchies and pervasive, inflexible regulations, German research is looking as strong as ever, particularly on a global stage that seems increasingly indifferent to science. “I’d love it if our science-policy and budget decision-makers in the US were willing to take lessons from Germany again today,” says Kenneth Prewitt, a political scientist at Columbia University in New York City.
Source: Spending, OECD; Publishing, Scival/Scopus; Patents, USPTO/EPO
The structure of modern German science rests on concepts developed two centuries ago by Wilhelm von Humboldt, a Prussian educator who pioneered ideas that continue to hold sway around the world. It was he, for example, who suggested that university professors should do front-line research as well as teaching.
His philosophy that education should be both broad and deep, and that academic life should be free from politics and religion, remains engraved in the German psyche. “The Humboldtian system is in our DNA,” says Thorsten Wilhelmy, general secretary of the Berlin Institute for Advanced Study. “That’s why politicians are not so tempted to cut basic research when times get tough.” (See ‘Build, link and trust’.)
Staying strong will require huge investment and more international cooperation.
The German higher-education and research system seems to be in good shape. The country is near the top of global league tables in terms of output, publication quality, and numbers of students and faculty members from abroad (see ‘Germany by the numbers’). So why worry about the future? My reasons for concern relate to the political conditions under which universities and research organizations will have to operate in the 2020s. And, from my experience as director of Germany’s largest private funder of basic research, I feel that it is essential to establish more sustainable, long-term alliances with leading research institutions in other countries — in particular with universities from the Southern Hemisphere.
In 2020, a policy called Schuldenbremse or ‘debt brake’ is set to roll out in most German states. Agreed by the federal government and the 16 state governments in 2009, this will put a strict upper limit on budget deficits and prevent them from making new debts, especially at the state level. If implemented as planned, universities will struggle to maintain or refurbish their infrastructure, let alone acquire new buildings or facilities. Current estimates are that some €35 billion (US$41.2 billion) is needed until 2025 just to keep existing lecture halls and laboratories fit for purpose. Meeting these challenges will require the next federal government to make a strong financial commitment to the university sector.
Policymakers at every level must widen their objectives considerably in terms of what a resilient higher-education and research system should achieve. This was discussed earlier this year by the Hightech Forum, a government advisory body on which I sit. Two actions are urgent: to speed up the process of digitization in every domain of education; and to provide the research base to advance the wider use of artificial intelligence. The next government must also build on the considerable progress made in internationalizing the student and research communities. Germany will need to expand its foreign policies to integrate transnational innovation policies, including conceptual inputs to the European Union’s next Framework programme.
Ultimately, the goal of all higher-education and research management must be to open up time and space for critical as well as creative thinking, to stimulate bold ideas and to aid movement beyond incremental achievements towards radical innovations. Policymakers, politicians, presidents, rectors and researchers must work together towards the high-trust culture of creativity that Germany and others are trying to achieve.
These ideals have weathered dramatic political upheaval. Adolf Hitler’s Third Reich perverted science and led to the country’s devastation in the Second World War. In 1949, Germany was refounded as two countries, which rebuilt their scientific strengths under opposing political systems.
West Germany’s democratic constitution, which remains in force, declared: “Arts and sciences, research and teaching shall be free.” To ensure that centralization and abuse of power could never happen again, it created a highly federalized country in which responsibility for culture, science and education lies with the Länder, or states — a feature that was to have negative as well as positive effects on university development.
By contrast, the communist German Democratic Republic (DDR) centralized research and kept it under tight control. Scientists were isolated from their colleagues in the West and their system became impoverished as the DDR’s economy gradually failed.
Merkel grew up in this system, graduating from the Karl Marx University in Leipzig in 1978 with a degree in physics and then moving to the Central Institute for Physical Chemistry in Berlin, one of the most prestigious research centres in the DDR. There, she met her second husband, quantum chemist Joachim Sauer, and earned her PhD with honours. Her zeal for physics did not extend to the required political education. In the DDR, no one got their PhD without an accompanying certificate in the study of Marxism–Leninism; Merkel’s dissertation for that subject, ‘What is the socialist lifestyle?’, was accepted with the lowest passing grade.
When the two Germanys were unified in 1990, special committees from the West evaluated the DDR scientists for competence. Many lost their jobs, but Sauer was accepted for transfer to Berlin’s Humboldt University. Merkel, who had not been overtly political before, jumped into democratic politics and soon joined the centre-right Christian Democratic Union (CDU). Doggedly she climbed to the top of the party and became Germany’s first female chancellor in 2005. She won federal elections in 2009 and 2013 and looks set to maintain her position. (In Germany, there is no time limit on serving as head of government.) In March, she opined: “I came from basic research myself and have always said, you can’t predict things there — you just have to leave space.”
German publicly funded science is organized into five pillars: the universities and its four unique research organizations, each named after a scientific giant in German history.
The Max Planck Society, founded in 1948, now runs 81 basic-research institutes whose directors are given extraordinary budgets and free rein to tread their own paths. A director in life sciences typically gets a basic package of €2 million (US$2.4 million) a year to run their research programme, not including major equipment purchases. The Fraunhofer Society was founded a year later and is dedicated to applied research. It is named after the Bavarian physicist Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787–1826), a pioneer of precision optics. National research centres, which carry out large-scale strategic research according to government priorities, are now bundled within the Helmholtz Association, named after pioneering physiologist and physicist Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–94). A collection of other scientific institutes and facilities has been bundled into an association named after polymath Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716).
In a deal that goes back to 1949, the federal government shares the costs of the research organizations with the Länder. But in general, the Länder have to finance the universities on their own. There are around 110 of these, and 230 Fachhochschulen, universities of applied sciences that can’t offer PhDs but train the work force for industry.
“The clarity and transparency of this structure appeals to the German order-loving mentality,” says Ferdi Schüth, a director at the Max Planck Institute for Coal Research in Mülheim. “It makes the system easier for outsiders, including politicians, to understand.”
Support for research quickly built up during the years of West Germany’s
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