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INTRODUCTION 153
1. THE TERMINOLOGY AND
CONCEPTS USED:
DEFINITIONS 154
2. TYPES OF THE
SOCIO-CULTURAL FORMATIONS 158
3. PERIODS OF THE
SOCIO-CULTURAL SYSTEMS’ (SCS)
EVOLUTION 169
4. EVOLUTION OF THE SPACES OF
THE SOCIO-CULTURAL
TIME-SPATIAL
MODELS 173
5. EVOLUTION OF THE SPACES OF
THE SOCIO-CULTURAL
SYSTEMS:
LEGEND TO THE TIME-SPATIAL MODELS 177
6. EVOLUTION OF THE SPACES OF
THE SOCIO-CULTURAL
SYSTEMS: TIME-SPATIAL MODELS 180
6.1. BARBARIAN-NOMADIC SCS 180
6.2. MUSLIM SCS 187
6.3. CHINESE SCS 194
6.4. WESTERN SCS 201
6.5. RUSSIAN SCS 208
6.6. HINDU SCS 215
6.7. SOUTH-AMERICAN SCS 222
6.8. BLACK AFRICAN SCS 229
SOCIO-CULTURAL
SYSTEMS EVOLUTION 236
his article is the first brief, but hopefully more or
less systematical presentation of the theory of socio-cultural systems to an
English-reading audience. It is actually the translation of the essay
“Morphology of the Socio-Cultural Formations” written originally in Russian,
but with some extras added to present here a more complete idea of the theory.
Researches in this direction are conducted by the author since 1984, but not so
many works were published until 1997. Those that were - fortunately or
unfortunately - all are in Russian.
During these years the author lived and worked in
several countries and regions of the World: in 1985/87 it was People’s Republic
of China, in 1991/92 - Federal Republic of Germany, in 1992/93 - Republic of
South Africa, in 1994 - the USA, and in 1995/97 - South Africa again. The
result is real, personalized, not just read about observations of various
socio-cultural types of spaces.
The work on the theory is going on. In 1998/99 we
intend to make ready for publishing - in both Russian and English - texts on
socio-cultural interpretations of demographic processes and current demographic
situation in the World, state and political boundaries, wars and regional
conflicts, economics
and money, social processes in various socio-cultural systems. Some of these
directions are explored in co-opearation with our loyal colleagues and
co-authors, and Tatyana Nikolaenko in particular.
1. THE TERMINOLOGY AND CONCEPTS USED:
In this first small chapter we wish to
define more precisely the principal terms used further. It’s always quite
complicated procedure, but in this particular case we can do it quite correctly
after describing indicative qualities of every main socio-cultural formation.
We do not even hope to present here a completely exhaustive, maximum correct
definitions, and in general don’t believe such “statements of a things’ precise
meaning” make any particular sense. It seems more important to define certain
theoretical basis that would make it possible to successively and exactly
distinguish one socio-cultural formation or process from another, along the
whole length of their historical evolution. Complexity of this task is that
socio-cultural formations and processes have very long life terms and exist as
an astonishing diversity of specific external forms. With it all, their essence
remains one and the same. Variety of the socio-cultural formations’ and
processes’ specific forms makes defining the terminology used here quite a
practical problem.
HOMELAND - the most profoundly transformed in a socio-cultural
respect territory where representatives of a certain socio-cultural formation
lived and / or still live during historically prolonged interval of time, absolutely
securing this territory as their own. Homeland’s territory is always furiously
protected and defended from any outside invasions. Representatives of the alien
socio-cultural formations may be present there only for a brief time and with
many a restrictions that especially concerns homelands of socio-cultural
systems.
Territories of the Urals and Moscow region
may serve as the examples of the Russian homeland. They were assimilated in accordance
with Russian standards and are clearly interpreted as Russian homeland, though
duration of these territories’occupation by the Russian population differs
essentially.
SOCIO-CULTURAL SYSTEM (SCS) - type of the socio-cultural formations
dominating in a socio-cultural evolution. SCS-s include main part of the
World’s population and inhabited territories. SCS-s are characterized by great
sizes of their territories and considerable quantities of own population; they
possess original standards of a space, society and state organisation as well
as many a unique qualities because of those they do differ drastically from the
rest of the socio-cultural formations.
Unique characteristics of SCS-s are as
follows:
·
ability to expand own
homeland at the expense of socio-cultural assimilation of a new territories;
·
ability to generate
complicated structure of own space, with internal buffer zones, in order to
protect and defend itself from other SCS-s;
·
complete cycle of the
space socio-cultural assimilation which includes seven principal stages;
·
domination of the inner
logics over outer factors which are always used in a strict correspondence with
the SCS’ evolution internal order;
·
ability to create
naturally dependent vassals in a course of socio-cultural transformation of
other territories;
·
own world religion, or
its own unique version;
·
ability to widen a
circulation of own language outside own homeland, and first of all - in the
internal buffer zone and among the naturally dependent vassals;
·
reliability and
self-sufficiency of own economy;
·
ability to generate and
invent stable original economic standards and forms which may have no analogues
outside a particular SCS.
There are eight SCS-s, and in the process
of their evolution each of them goes through seven stages. With this, at every
stage SCS-s acquire specific distinguished forms. Thus, there are 56
essentially different external forms of SCS-s to understand which we should
base all the theoretical interpretations on a correct generalization of a very
high level.
INTERNAL BUFFER ZONE OF SCS - qualitatively original and distinctive
socio-cultural part of the SCS’s space that is always located on the
“outskirts” of the SCS’s homeland, along its borders with other socio-cultural
formations. Internal buffer zone is destined mainly to protect homeland of a
particular SCS from immediate contacts with alien SCS-s and their possible
aggression. It may border with an external socio-cultural buffer zone as well
as an internal buffer zone of a neighbouring SCS. Organization of an internal
buffer zone is characterized by many a distinctive qualities determined by the
specific evolutionary process of the SCS this particular buffer zone belongs
to.
Example of the internal buffer zone of the
past is the territory of the Great Novgorod Principality which, during
socio-cultural contest of Russian SCS of the XI - XVI centuries, protected
Russian homeland from the invasions of Western SCS. Modern internal buffer zone
of Russian SCS is formed by the new independent states rising after the
collapse and transformation of the USSR. All of them, excluding Belarus and
Kazakhstan, have formed internal buffer zone of Russian SCS, irrespective of
their own wishes as well as - and especially - declarations.
NATURALLY DEPENDENT VASSAL - relatively integral territory with own
population that retains some unprincipal differences from the neighbouring,
dominating over it SCS, but became this SCS’ inalienable part as a result of
prolonged and systematic socio-cultural transformation. It is important that
sizes of states - naturally dependent vassals may vary essentially: the point
isn’t size in itself, but a special socio-cultural type of these formations.
Naturally dependent vassals may possess a
considerable amount of political and economic independence, have quite complicated,
and at times conflicting, relationships with their dominants, being actually
just a part of a dominating SCS.
In fact, they practically cannot change
their socio-cultural status, and the point isn’t just separate, single economic
or political actions, but socio-cultural measures that should be conducted
successively during several centuries and (most probably) on the competing SCS’
own initiative. Only initiative or, especially, declaratory wishes of a
naturally dependent vassal itself are never quite enough to change its
socio-cultural status, and not a single example of a naturally dependent vassal
really changing its status is known. Study of eight SCS-s along the whole
length of their history demonstrates that if some territory was formed as a
naturally dependent vassal of a certain SCS, then it remains as such forever.
Example of a naturally dependent vassals
are modern, now politically independent states rising on the basis of the
disintegrated former USSR. All of them, excluding only Belarus and Kazakhstan,
are naturally dependent vassals of Russia.
EXTERNAL SOCIO-CULTURAL BUFFER ZONE - type of the socio-cultural formations
that evolves to separate two or more alien SCS-s. As a rule, external buffer
zones border not immediately with the SCS-s, but with their internal buffer
zones completely controlled by their own SCS-s. External buffer zone as a
special socio-cultural formation is characterized by extreme instability and
dependence on dynamics of those SCS-s it separates.
East Europe may serve as the classic
example of the external buffer zone, being a special type of the socio-cultural
formation which separates Western and Russian SCS-s.
SOCIO-CULTURAL DOMAIN (SCD) - type of the socio-cultural formations
that is quite similar to socio-cultural system, but possesses a substantial
quantity of a principal distinctions. It’s characterized by stable and
prolonged existence as well as specific economic, social and cultural forms.
Fundamental differences compare to SCS are that SCD-s are categorically unable
to assimilate and transform new territories into own homeland, expanding it
with this, and create naturally dependent vassals: so, there is no systematic
work with space as in case of a socio-cultural systems. The effect is a sort of
socio-cultural conservation: SCD-s do not change / expand their own space and
in general do not evolve in themselves during very prolonged periods; modern
results of such phenomenon are quite modest sizes of their territories. Another
essential SCD-s distinction from SCS-s manifests itself in their extraordinary
situational behaviour.
At the present level of knowledge about
socio-cultural formations and processes, there is no possibility to determine
the reasons for emerging differences of socio-cultural systems and domains with
respect to space, but it’s possible to describe all the details and components
of these distinctions.
MIXED SOCIO-CULTURAL REGION - territory that has no distinct internal
socio-cultural dominant and where various socio-cultural formations (SCS-s,
SCD-s and buffer zones) co-exist. As a rule, these are regions of the young
historical assimilation which, in some perspective, gain socio-cultural
certainty, but with this may retain in their boundaries presence of a several
socio-cultural formations. Most probable evolution of a mixed socio-cultural
regions is into naturally dependent vassals and external buffer zones, and as a
more rare case - into part of the homeland of some SCS.
ENCLAVE - territory of a historically temporary domination of
a particular SCS within another socio-cultural formation. Genesis and evolution
of enclaves are diverse and in many respects depend on a specific characteristics
of a particular SCS’ dynamics. As a rule, enclaves are generated during process
of expanding areas controlled by one or another SCS. They carry out important
socio-cultural tasks, but are not lasting as from historical point of view.
Next in turn stage of the SCS evolution may become the reason for enclave’s
degradation, even in the absence of an external pressure.
ENCLAVE-COMMUNITY WITHIN ALIEN SCS - critical self-reproducible quantity of
one SCS’ population permanently living on the territory of another SCS and
retaining with this own specific socio-cultural standards. Enclave-community
reproduces itself by means of both natural growth and mechanical migrations of
population from maternal SCS into SCS of permanent inhabitance.
Enclave-communities are most typical for the regions of mixed socio-cultural as
well as pioneer inhabitance.
As the classical example we may consider
black inhabitants of North America, and the USA in particular.
SOCIO-CULTURAL CONTEST - process which is inherent only for socio-cultural
systems. Its socio-cultural meaning lies in developing and selecting the most
efficient, in a specific historical conditions, socio-cultural basis for a
certain SCS which should determine further ways of solving this SCS’ most
fundamental and principal problems. Socio-cultural contests may take place at
various stages of the SCS-s evolution and, as a rule, in a form of a cycle of
civil wars, domestic quarrels and feuds, economic and cultural depression. They
do usually leave the very gloomy and strange memories in the following
generations and become the subject of subsequent falsifications from the side
of their very own SCS-s. In reality, socio-cultural contests are absolutely
necessary for the efficient growth and development of any SCS and are a kind of
its response to changing arrangements of socio-cultural powers.
SOCIO-CULTURAL MIGRATIONS (SOCIO-CULTURALLY
SIGNIFICANT MIGRATIONS) -
migrations that are directed outside the traditional homeland of a certain SCS
and aimed at the socio-cultural transformation of the alien territories into
the new homeland of the SCS in question, or creating its naturally dependent
vassals. Such migrations are the unique quality of SCS-s. Specific causes that
bring them about may be very different, but, as a rule, manifest themselves
through generating a sort of the “end of the World” within traditional
homeland.
Example of the migrations aimed at the
expanding the own homeland is eastward flight of Russians onto new territories
in Siberia and Far East as from the second half of the XVI century, and
especially - as from the second half of the XVII century. The result of the
“time of troubles” within the traditional - at the time - Russian homeland and
the Russian Orthodox church schism were mass migrations of the Russian
population to new lands which thus became the new Russian homeland - not the
result of a fortuitous, but socio-culturally grounded process.
Processes of the rise and growth of the
Cossacks in Moscow Tsardom and Russian Empire as well as resettlements of a considerable
numbers of Russians in Baltic Republics and Middle Asia during Soviet times may
serve as the examples of the migrations aimed at the creating naturally
dependent vassals. Results of such “melting” actions and processes began revealing
themselves only after the USSR disintegration. Transformed in a socio-cultural
respect territories turned out to be greatly dependent from Russia.
Such processes are of universal character
and take place in the evolution of actually all the SCS-s - socio-cultural
migrations are not unique for any one of them.
2. TYPES OF THE SOCIO-CULTURAL FORMATIONS
socio-cultural
type’s indications / qualities
1.1. Relatively large areas of permanent
inhabitance
Always possesses and controls significant
territories
Never comparable to the SCS’ space. As a
rule, it’s much less than the territory of ane taken separately SCS, and may
be quite insignificant
Never comparable with the SCS’ space. As
a rule, it’s much less than the territory of any taken separately SCS, and as
the neighbouring socio-cultural systems progress, decreases to a certain
modest size
May possess quite large initial area, but
demonstrates persistent tendency to its gradual
reduction, due to various parts of the territory assimilation into and by
other socio-cultural formations - socio-cultural systems and domains
1.2. Homeland where significant
quantities of its population live permanently
Always has own homeland where significant
part of its population lives continually
In accordance with this particular
criterion, there are two types of socio-cultural domains:
1. Stable SCD with permanent homeland and
permanent population;
2. Sporadic SCD, with homeland where its
population may be absent for centuries
Homeland exists, but it’s extremely
changeable and unstable. Its fluctuations depend mainly on external factors,
such as pressure from the neighbouring SCS-s side. Furthermore, homeland
cannot be defined absolutely exactly within an entire area of enhabitance and
control of this particular socio-cultural type’s population as a whole
Homeland has no definite, precise
character. At the developed stage, micro-differences of the neighbouring
socio-cultural enclaves’ homelands may take place. Representatives of the
various socio-cultural systems and domains have own homelands within the
mixed region
1.3. Ability to expand the homeland,
through assimilation into it new territories
Has the ability to assimilate the new
territories into own homeland, as a rule, in regard to territories bordering
with the old homeland and extended from its borders for any distance. This
ability is the unique quality and indication of SCS
Has no such ability. Only temporary
changes of the controlled space may take place. In practice, homeland never
changes to grow
Has no such ability. Homeland may hardly
be defined from an entire area of permanent enhabitance of the particular
socio-cultural buffer zone’s population and its temporary control. Homeland
never grows as a result of new territories assimilation
Socio-cultural systems’ homelands expand
to a considerable degree at the expense of transformation of the mixed
socio-cultural regions’ spaces. Population of the mixed socio-cultural
regions themselves does not reveal any tendencies to expand their
homeland(-s)
1.4. Ability to generate complicated
internal structure of own socio-cultural space,
as a response to demands from the outside
(existence of an internal buffer zones)
Has the ability to generate complicated
internal structure of own space, mainly in order to protect and defend itself
from other SCS-s and as a response to respective demands from the outside.
This ability expresses itself in creating internal buffer zones along the
borders with other SCS-s. This is the unique quality and indication of SCS
Has no ability to generate complicated
internal structure of own space. It’s homogeneous because of its
insignificant size and in the absence of systematic work with own space as
well as neighbouring territories during historically considerable intervals
of time
Has no ability to generate complicated
internal structure of own space. The latter is extremely unstable and
changeable, and depends on outer factors, in particular, conditions and
conflicts of the neighbouring SCS-s
Has no ability to generate complicated
internal structure of own space. The latter is extremely unstable and
changeable, and depends on outer factors, in particular, conditions and
conflicts of the neighbouring SCS-s
1.5. Ability to generate civilizations as
a form of the own territory
sporadic colonization and assimilation,
at the early stages of evolution
Does have such ability. At the early
stages of evolution SCS-s may produce isolated civilizations. Later on, as
SCS develops and evolves, it absorbs these civilizations into itself.
Generating civilizations is a unique, but, none the less, not obligatory
quality and indication of the SCS: it depends on a specific (regional)
conditions of a historical process
Unable to generate civilizations. In
spite of their whatever great age and antiquity, SCD-s do not invent such
forms of the territories’ colonization / assimilation
1.6. Ability to independently generate
one or several stable states
Possesses the ability to independentrly
generate one or several stable states. Number of states depends on a stage of
the SCS evolution and may vary greatly (from one state occupying the whole
SCS territory, and up to several dozens)
This ability manifests itself depending
on the SCD’s type:
1. Stable SCD with stable population and
stable homeland, as a rule, generates one stable state;
2. Sporadic SCD with homeland where its
population may be absent for centuries, generates one state which however
exists only from time to time
Never independently generates stable
states. Buffer states constantly change their boundaries and, in general,
greatly vary in their sizes and configurations. Subject to (conflicting)
interests and conditions of competing neighbouring SCS-s, they may be
represented either by one or several states. Any buffer states are extremely
unstable and always greatly depend on external factorsd (conditions and
relations of neighbouring SCS-s, in particular)
Never independently generates stable
states, though areas inhabited by certain population - but never states - may
be quite stable. May have both one or several states as well as no states at
all: everything depends on positions of SCS-s participating in the region’s
assimilation, and the stage of evolution of the mixed region itself
1.7. Concentration of the considerable
reserves of vitally important
natural resources within own
socio-cultural space
Usually possesses considerable reserves
of vitally important natural resources. Their structure differs significantly
and, of course, depends on previous geological history of the SCS territory,
but in general available resources allow the SCS’ economy to exist, in
practice, autonomously
SCD’s territory, as a rule, isn’t considerable
in itself, and most often reserves of vitally important natural resources are
not contained there. In case of Northern SCD, their independent exploitation
is in fact impossible due to primitive level of this SCD’s general progress
As a rule, there are no considerable
reserves of vitally important natural resources within socio-cultural buffer
zones. And if such resources are found, then unstable space of a buffer zone
becomes an object for the next re-partition by competing neighbouring SCS-s,
and buffer zone itself is again left without an important natural resource
Considerable reserves of vitally
important natural resources may be found, but their exploitation is
completely determined by various SCS-s participating in a mixed region’s
assimilation, and is an external business for the particular mixed region
itself
1.8. Ability to generate ecological
crises as a steps
in assimilating own socio-cultural space
Possesses the ability to generate
ecological crises within local spaces during process of their assimilation,
in order to move then further, onto new territories with better natural and
living conditions - in order to generate ecological crises there afresh. Such
is, as a matter of fact, strategy of an initial socio-cultural assimilation
of territories within utmost possible limits. After the boundaries of the
socio-culturally assimilated spaces are defined, ecological crises lose their
socio-cultural meaning and are not generated any more
There is no such ability. SCD-s do not
generate ecological crises as a step in a space assimilation, and are
inserted into their natural environment with maximum correctness. The reason
is not so much their highly-developed culture, but their inability to expand
own socio-culturally assimilated space
Socio-culturally oriented ecological
crises may take place in a buffer zones, but they are never aimed to expand
their own socio-cultural space and / or assimilate alien territories, and are
results of periodic fluctuations of a buffer zone’s territory influenced by
neighbouring SCS-s. The reason of such ecological crises may be, for
instance, next in turn replacement of a dominating neighbouring SCS. Similar
ecological crises are generated not by buffer zone itself, but by one of
neighbouring SCS-s within a buffer zone’s space as a sort of socio-cultural
provocation aimed to achieve certain purposes of a certain SCS
Socio-culturally oriented ecological
crises may take place in a mixed regions, but they are never aimed to expand
their own socio-cultural space and assimilate alien territories, and are
results of periodic changes in the SCS-s’ power arrangements in the region.
The reason of such ecological crisis may be, for instance, next in turn
replacement of a dominant SCS
2.1. Stable existence during historically
considerable intervals of time
Stable existence during historically
significant intervals of time is a characteristic of SCS. Its life terms are
amounted to 2500 years and more
Stable existence during historically
significant intervals of time is also a characteristic of SCD-s. Their life
terms are amounted to 2500 years and more, too
Usually formed as a result of
neighbouring SCS-s interaction and competition. As a rule, period of a buffer
zone existence is lesser than any of the neighbouring SCS-s. Life term of the
buffer zone as a specific socio-cultural formation may amount to 1000 years
and more
Heavily depends on specific (historical)
conditions of the region colonization. As a developed formations may exist
for a very long while without any changes. Life term of a completely formed
mixed socio-cultural region may amount to 2000 years and more
2.2. Complete cycle of the own
socio-cultural space formation which includes
series of successive stages determined by
the inner logics of the space evolution
Possesses a complete cycle of the space
socio-cultural assimilation. Researches reveal seven principal stages of
socio-cultural evolution, and every stage may consist of a few particular
phases. This is the unique quality and indication of SCS
Has no such cycle. As distinguished from
SCS, SCD does not work regularly at transforming its socio-cultural space.
Its homeland is static during historically considerable periods. As a result
of a favourable outside situation, SCD’s controlled space may change
drastically, but always for a very brief time and without any socio-cultural
assimilation / transformation of the territory that falls under such
temporary control
Has no complete cycle. Everything depends
on the outside situation that determines the buffer zone’s behaviour. Buffer
zone itself does not work regularly at expanding and transforming its
socio-cultural space. As a result of a favourable outside situation, space
controlled by particular buffer zone may change drastically, but always for a
(historically) brief time and without any socio-cultural assimilation /
transformation of the territory that falls under such temporary control
Has no complete
cycle. Everything depends on the outside factors and situation that determine
specific behaviour of the mixed socio-cultural region. It’s unable to work
regularly at expanding and transforming its socio-cultural space at all
3.1. Correlation of inner logics and
outer factors.
Ability to resist socio-cultural pressure
from the outside
Inner logics always prevail over outer
factors which are only used in case of strict correspondence with the SCS’s
evolution internal order. Even successful external spatial expansions are
always used for the own inner purposes. This is the unique quality and
indication of SCS
Does have some inner regularlities which
may sometimes prevail over external factors, but in many cases namely outer
factors prove to play decisive role in determining ways of the SCD’s
evolution. Pressure fr
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