Teenage Dating Violence Programs
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Teenage Dating Violence Programs
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During adolescence, many youths enter their first romantic relationship (Goncy, Farrell, and Sullivan, 2016; Scott et al., 2011; East and Hokoda, 2014). In some of these romantic relationships, adolescents may experience teen dating violence, as either a perpetrator or a victim—and many as both (Basile et al., 2020; Taylor and Mumford, 2016; Ybarra et al., 2016). Such abuse or victimization can have significant impacts on many facets of a young person’s life, with long-term consequences that may last past the end of the relationships and well into their adulthood (Mendoza and Mulford, 2018; Scott et al., 2011; Exner–Cortens, Eckenrode, and Rothman, 2013).
Dating violence is a complex issue that includes a variety of abusive behaviors. In the past, dating violence research focused primarily on college-age or young adults; however, there has been a steady increase in dating violence research on adolescent relationships (Bonache, Gonzalez–Mendez, and Krahe, 2017; Datta, Cornell, and Konold, 2020; Hamby, Finkelhor, and Turner, 2012).
This literature review will discuss research surrounding teen dating violence, including definitions of different types of dating violence, the scope of the problem, risk and protective factors related to perpetration and victimization, short- and long-term consequences, and outcome evidence of programs that seek to prevent or reduce the occurrence of teen dating violence. This review focuses on dating violence that occurs between adolescents in middle and high school (primarily youth ages 12 to 18). The terms teens , youths , and adolescents are used interchangeably throughout the review.
Teen dating violence is a form of intimate-partner violence. [1] Teen dating violence is defined by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ, 2018) as “physical, emotional, or sexual abuse; harassment; or stalking that occurs among persons ages 12 to 18 within the context of a past or present romantic or consensual relationship.” Teen dating violence may also be referred to as teen dating abuse, adolescent relationship abuse, adolescent dating abuse, intimate-partner violence among adolescents, or intimate relationship abuse among adolescents.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2019) identify four types of teen dating violence and defines them as follows:
In addition, a newer form of dating violence, cyber dating abuse, involves “the use of technology to control, harass, threaten, or stalk another person in the context of a dating relationship” (Dick et al., 2014: 1561). Some examples are pressuring partners to send a sexual/naked photo of themselves, spreading rumors by text or other messaging platforms, making partners afraid when they do not respond to a text or message, and harassing partners by using information from a social networking site (Zweig et al., 2013). Another term used by researchers is digital dating abuse , which is a “pattern of behaviors using mobile phones and social media to harass, pressure, coerce, and threaten a dating partner” (Reed et al., 2021, 1). Researchers also have used the terms technology-assisted adolescent dating violence (Stonard, 2020) and electronic aggression (Bennett et al., 2011).
[1] More generally, intimate-partner violence is defined as physical, sexual, or psychological harm by a current or former intimate partner (NIJ, 2019). Intimate-partner violence has historically been called “domestic violence” and can occur among both heterosexual and same-sex couples.
The scope of the teen dating violence problem in the United States ranges from psychological abuse to the most extreme form of dating violence—homicide. The sections that follow provide victimization and perpetration rates relating to teen dating violence. These rates come primarily from surveys or studies that included nationally representative youth samples, rather than studies conducted in a single location.
Teen dating violence affects millions of youths in the United States every year. The information below discusses rates of victimization for physical, sexual, and psychological dating violence.
Physical Dating Violence. The CDC’s Youth Risk Behavior Survey ( YRBS ) is a national school-based survey conducted with students in grades 9 to 12 that includes questions about health-related behaviors, such as those that contribute to unintentional injuries and violence; alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use; and sexual behaviors. In 2019, more than 13,500 surveys were completed from a nationally representative sample of public and private schools in the 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia (Basile et al., 2020). Results from the 2019 survey provide the following information on physical dating violence victimization that had been experienced by students in the previous year:
Other epidemiological studies also illustrate teens’ experience of dating violence. As part of the Growing Up With Media study (Ybarra et al., 2016), a subsample of 1,058 nationally representative youths, ages 14 to 21, who reported ever having had a romantic relationship were asked about their experiences with adolescent dating abuse (ADA), including nondefensive [1] physical, sexual, and psychological abuse, in their lifetimes. Rates were reported for all youths, dating and nondating, to provide population-based estimates. The survey found that 19 percent of youths reported being the victims of nondefensive physical ADA. Female and male youths reported experiencing nondefensive physical ADA at about the same rate (18.5 percent and 19.4 percent, respectively).
Another study (Hamby, Finkelhor, and Turner, 2012) used data from the National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence (NatSCEV) to explore the co-occurrence of physical teen dating violence victimization with other forms of victimization. The study included a subsample of 1,680 youths, ages 12 to 17, from the NatSCEV (which is a nationally representative survey of more than 4,500 children ranging from 1 month to 17 years old). Approximately 6.4 percent of the sample reported being a victim of physical teen dating violence (although more males than females reported victimization, the rates of physical injury from dating violence were three times higher for females as for males). The results showed that every victim of physical teen dating violence (100 percent) also reported at least one other type of victimization, including physical abuse by a caregiver, sexual victimization (such as rape or sexual harassment), or gang or group assault. The results from this research suggest that teen dating violence is closely related to other forms of violent victimization, and thus it may not be useful to research teen dating violence apart from other forms of violence (Hamby, Finkelhor, and Turner, 2012).
Sexual Dating Violence. The 2019 YRBS survey found that, of the 66 percent of surveyed students who had reported dating someone in the previous year, 8.2 percent reported that they had been forced to perform sexual acts by their dating partner that they did not want, such as kissing, touching, or being physically forced to have sexual intercourse. Female students were more likely to report having experienced sexual dating violence victimization than male students (12.6 percent versus 3.8 percent, respectively). Additionally, about 6.7 percent of heterosexual students; 16.4 percent of gay, lesbian, or bisexual students; and 15.0 percent of questioning students reported experiencing sexual dating violence. These were all statistically significant differences. However, the YRBS did not find any statistically significant differences in sexual dating violence victimization by race (Basile et al., 2020).
The Growing Up With Media study found similar results. The study showed that 10.8 percent of youths reported being the victims of sexual ADA, and a greater number of females (13.6 percent) reported sexual ADA, compared with males (8.3 percent), though this difference was not statistically significant (Ybarra et al., 2016).
Psychological Dating Violence . The Growing Up With Media study (Ybarra et al., 2016) found that 40.9 percent of youths reported being the victims of psychological dating violence, and that this was the most common form of dating violence experienced by youths in the study. In regard to gender, a greater proportion of females (47.1 percent) than males (35.3 percent) reported being the victims of psychological dating violence.
The National Survey on Teen Relationships and Intimate Violence (STRiV) , a nationally representative household survey that specifically focused on asking about adolescent relationship abuse (ARA), also found that the rate of youths reporting any psychological ARA was high (65.5 percent), compared with physical and sexual victimization rates. Approximately 65 percent of all youths reported moderate psychological abuse victimization (e.g., accusations of flirting, threats to end the relationship, or jealous behavior), and 12.1 percent reported serious psychological abuse victimization (spreading rumors about the victim or trying to turn the victim’s friends against them). Rates by gender were similar, with 65.7 percent of boys and 65.3 percent of girls reporting that they had experienced psychological ARA (Taylor and Mumford, 2016).
Stalking and Harassment. There is less research on stalking and harassment within teen dating relationships, compared with other types of dating violence. The research that does examine this type of dating violence has looked at the behavior in general or among acquaintances, and not in a dating relationship specifically (Mennicke et al., 2021; Smith–Darden, Reidy, and Kernsmith 2016). Evidence suggests that adolescents are more likely to stalk casual acquaintances than current or former dating partners, despite the majority of adolescents reporting being most afraid of being stalked by former partners (Fisher et al., 2014; Smith–Darden, Reidy, and Kernsmith 2016). The STRiV study did examine stalking and harassment in teen dating relationships, finding that, among youths with some dating experience, 48 percent were victims of stalking or harassment—defined as having a partner who had ever spied on or followed them, damaged something that belonged to them, or gone through their online accounts (Rothman et al., 2021).
Summary . Overall, the research and data suggest that rates of sexual and physical teen dating violence victimization range from 7 percent to 19 percent; about half of dating youths experience stalking or harassment, and rates of psychological dating violence may be as high as 65 percent. Ultimately, rates vary by gender and sexual orientation (Basile et al., 2020; Rothman et al., 2021; Ybarra et al., 2016; Taylor and Mumford, 2016).
Generally, studies have found that fewer teenagers report perpetrating physical, sexual, or psychological dating violence than report being victims. For example, the 2016 study by Ybarra and colleagues found that
The STRiV study found similar results (Taylor and Mumford, 2016). Approximately 12 percent of youths reported perpetrating any physical ARA, and 12 percent reported perpetrating any sexual ARA, while 62 percent reported perpetrating any psychological ARA. The rates varied by gender. More girls reported perpetrating any physical ADA (14.7 percent), compared with boys (9.3 percent); however, more boys reported perpetrating any sexual ADA (13.4 percent), compared with girls (10.6 percent). Boys and girls reported perpetrating any psychological ARA at similar rates (61.6 percent and 62.5 percent, respectively). Although newer studies tend to define dating violence as actions taken not in self-defense, interpretation of what actions constitute self-defense may differ by gender and therefore influence the results (Ybarra et al., 2016).
In addition, a meta-an
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