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Fischer fing einen weißen Hai und lassen Sie ihn Fischer fing einen weißen Hai und lassen Sie ihn Weißer Hai Zufuhren auf Buckelwal "Große weibliche weiße Hai Zerreißen Stücke aus Scarlett der Wal über 18 Stunden. Sie aß so viel sie schwamm um upside-down planlos wie sie betrunken war." DIE UNTIEFEN – Official Trailer # 2 (FESTPLATTE) In dem straff Thriller The Shallows, Wenn Nancy (Blake Lebhaft) ist an einem abgeschiedenen Strand Surfen, Sie findet sich vor Ort von einem weißen Hai Fütterung. Obwohl sie nur 200 Meter vom Ufer entfernt gestrandet, Überleben erweist sich als der ultimative Test für Testamente, erfordert den ganzen Einfallsreichtum von Nancy, Einfallsreichtum, und Tapferkeit. Im Theater Sommer 2016. Weißer Hai 0: Siegel 1 – Cape Cod Prädation Versuch aus Monomoy fehlgeschlagen, Cape Cod (17.08.15)- gefilmt von Dr. Greg Skomal von der Massachusetts Division der Seefischerei arbeiten mit Atlantic White Shark Conservancy Hinweise darauf, dass große Weiße Haie friedlichen Kreaturen Valerie Taylor Handfeeds ein weißer Hai in diesem Clip aus Schatten des Shark © Australian Geographic TV. Ein weißer Grizzlybär Ein weißer Grizzly im Yoho-Nationalpark in Kanada. Schönes rotes Auto Ein rotes Auto weicht knapp einem weißen Auto aus, das von hinten kommt. Kleine Weihnachtsschlange Eine kleine weiße Heterodon-nasicus-Schlange namens Kirby geht mit einer Weihnachtsmannmütze auf dem Kopf zwischen den Geschenken herum. Nämlich, der Hut war aus Plastilin und mit Wasser auf Kirbys Kopf geklebt. Schwarz & weiß Tesla-Spulen spielen Seven Nation Army Tesla-Spulen spielen die Musik der Seven Nation Army aus The White Stripes Der Taucher wurde plötzlich von einem Hammerhai angegriffen, aber irgendwie abgestoßen Der Taucher wurde plötzlich vom Hammerhai angegriffen, konnte ihn aber abwehren. Inzwischen im Weißen Haus… Heute Abend im Weißen Haus… Einen weißen Tiger umarmen Taucher treffen einen Walhai
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Between Occultism and Fascism

Between Occultism and Fascism: Anthroposophy and the Politics of Race and
Nation in Germany and Italy, 1900-1945
by Peter Staudenmaier
This thesis/dissertation document has been electronically approved by the following individuals:
Lacapra,Dominick C (Chairperson)
Hull,Isabel Virginia (Minor Member)
McBride,Patrizia C. (Minor Member)
BETWEEN OCCULTISM AND FASCISM: ANTHROPOSOPHY AND THE
POLITICS OF RACE AND NATION IN GERMANY AND ITALY, 1900-1945
A Dissertation
Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School
of Cornell University
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
by
Peter Staudenmaier
August 2010
© 2010 Peter Staudenmaier
BETWEEN OCCULTISM AND FASCISM: ANTHROPOSOPHY AND THE
POLITICS OF RACE AND NATION IN GERMANY AND ITALY, 1900-1945
Peter Staudenmaier, Ph.D.
Cornell University 2010
The relationship between Nazism and occultism has long been an object of popular
speculation and scholarly controversy. This dissertation examines the interaction
between occult groups and the Nazi regime as well as the Italian Fascist state, with
central attention to the role of racial and ethnic theories in shaping these
developments. The centerpiece of the dissertation is a case study of the
anthroposophist movement founded by Rudolf Steiner, an esoteric tendency which
gave rise to widely influential alternative cultural institutions including Waldorf
schools, biodynamic agriculture, and holistic methods of health care and nutrition. A
careful exploration of the tensions and affinities between anthroposophists and fascists
reveals a complex and differentiated portrait of modern occult tendencies and their
treatment by Nazi and Fascist officials.
Two initial chapters analyze the emergence of anthroposophy’s racial doctrines, its
self-conception as an ‘unpolitical’ spiritual movement, and its relations with the
völkisch milieu and with Lebensreform movements. Four central chapters concern the
fate of anthroposophy in Nazi Germany, with a detailed reconstruction of specific
anthroposophical institutions and their interactions with various Nazi agencies. Two
final chapters provide a comparative portrait of the Italian anthroposophical movement
during the Fascist era, with particular concentration on the role of anthroposophists in
influencing and administering Fascist racial policy.
Based on a wide range of archival sources, the dissertation offers an empirically founded
account of the neglected history of modern occult movements while shedding new light
on the operations of the Nazi and Fascist regimes. The analysis focuses on the interplay
of ideology and practice, the concrete ways in which contending worldviews attempted
to establish institutional footholds within the organizational disarray of the Third Reich
and the Fascist state, and shows that disagreements over racial ideology were embedded
in power struggles between competing factions within the Nazi hierarchy and the Fascist
apparatus. It delineates the ways in which early twentieth century efforts toward spiritual
renewal, holism, cultural regeneration and redemption converged with deeply regressive
political realities. Engaging critically with previous accounts, the dissertation raises
challenging questions about the political implications of alternative spiritual currents and
counter-cultural tendencies.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Peter Staudenmaier received a Bachelor of Arts in German Literature from the
University of Wisconsin – Madison in 1998 and a Master of Arts in History from
Cornell University in 2006.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am exceedingly fortunate to have four engaged, critical, reflective, and patient
committee members: Dominick LaCapra, Isabel Hull, Michael Steinberg, and Patrizia
McBride. I am especially grateful to Dominick LaCapra for his extraordinary
intellectual generosity and his unfailing support for this project, and to Isabel Hull for
her close reading and incisive critiques of my work.
I also owe special thanks to my friends at Cornell, above all Emma Kuby, Taran Kang,
and Franz Hofer. I am particularly indebted to the participants in Cornell’s European
history colloquium, who read and responded to drafts of many of the chapters here.
Thanks to Ryan Plumley, Marie Muschalek, Michelle Moyd, Kate Horning, Emma
Willoughby, Abi Fischer, Ada Kuskowski, Guillaume Ratel, Heidi Voskuhl, Robert
Travers, Duane Corpis, Holly Case, Oren Falk, Camille Robcis, and Vicki Caron.
For various forms of support, encouragement, and critical response, I am grateful to
Aaron Sachs, Suman Seth, Peter Uwe Hohendahl, David Bathrick, Barb Donnell,
Maggie Edwards, Peter Dear, Durba Ghosh, Jeremy Varon, Federico Finchelstein,
Steve Aschheim, Jim Steakley, Claudia Card, David Sorkin, Jost Hermand, Gayle
Rubin, Anne Harrington, Jonathan Hess, Andreas Daum, Georg Iggers, Uwe Puschner,
Anke Ortlepp, Veronika Lipphardt, Katrina Nousek, Gizem Arslan, Claudine Ang,
Loredana Comparone, Rob Augmann, Martina Benz, Stephan Braun, Debbie Braun,
Christoph Braun, Susanne Fries, Brooke Lehman, Chaia Heller, Alan Goodman, Cindy
Milstein, Bianca Bockman, Dan Chodorkoff, Murray Bookchin, Janet Biehl, Matt
Hern, Sundrop Carter, Blair Taylor, Chuck Morse, Paul Glavin, Joe Lowndes, Arthur
Foelsche, Walter Hergt, Ian Grimmer, Paula Emery, Eirik Eiglad, Darini Nicholas,
iv
Danny Postel, Chip Berlet, Liz DiNovella, Laurie Zimmerman, Sharmila Rudrappa,
Kristin Poling, Jessica Flood, Josh Carlsen, Sabina Knight, Metta McGarvey, Aurélie
Choné, Dan Dugan, Diana Winters, Sharon Lombard, Steve Walden, Roger Rawlings,
Alicia Hamberg, Michael Winship, Lucas Dreier, Tom Mellett, Jens Heisterkamp, and
Michael Eggert.
Friends in Europe played an important role in this project, and I am indebted to my
Dutch colleague Peter Zegers and my German colleague Peter Bierl for their
exceptional willingness to share materials and ideas. Mirella Olivari made my research
in Italy possible, and I am very grateful for her support. I owe an unusually significant
debt to Helmut Zander, whose ongoing engagement with this project has extended well
beyond the standard expectations of collegiality and friendship. Wouter Hanegraaff
and Marco Pasi have also provided important advice and assistance. I am thankful as
well to the staff of the archives and libraries I have worked in, particularly the
Bundesarchiv Berlin, the Archivio Centrale dello Stato in Rome, the Staatsbibliothek
Berlin, the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale in Rome, the Memorial Library at the
University of Wisconsin, the New York Public Library, and Olin Library at Cornell
University. The research was funded in part through a Luigi Einaudi Graduate
Fellowship for Research in Europe and a Humboldt Exchange Fellowship at the
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. I am grateful for additional assistance from the
German Historical Institute, a research travel grant from the Cornell University
Graduate School, and a timely Bowmar research fellowship.
In addition to many helpful academic colleagues, I am also lucky to have a loving
family, and I thank my father and all of my sisters and brothers for their support. I owe
a special debt to my brother Michael Staudenmaier for two decades of intellectual
v
companionship. My uncle, John Staudenmaier, has offered invaluable encouragement.
I am also grateful to my colleagues and friends from Ofek Shalom Cooperative,
Rainbow Bookstore Cooperative, and the Institute for Social Ecology. My most
important debt of all is to my partner Geeta Raval, my first and last reader, who has
watched this project develop from the very beginning and has sustained me
throughout.
My mother, Kathy Staudenmaier, died a few months before I completed the
dissertation. It is dedicated to her memory.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Biographical Sketch
iii
Acknowledgements
iv
Preface: From Spiritual Science to Spiritual Racism
viii
Introduction: Racial Politics in the Modern Occult Revival and the Rise of Fascism
1
1. Germany’s Savior: Rudolf Steiner and the Esoteric Meaning of Nation and Race
56
2. The Politics of the Unpolitical: German Anthroposophy in Theory and Practice,
1913-1933
112
3. Accommodation, Collaboration, Persecution: Anthroposophy in the Shadow of
National Socialism, 1933-1945
181
4. The German Essence Shall Heal the World: Ideological Affinities Between
Anthroposophy and Nazism
257
5. Education for the National Community? The Controversy over Waldorf Schools
in the Third Reich
305
6. The Nazi Campaign against Occultism
354
7. Anthroposophy and the Rise of Fascism in Italy
410
8. Italian Anthroposophists and the Fascist Racial Laws, 1938-1945
446
Conclusion: Occultism and Fascism in Historical Perspective
500
Bibliography
526
vii
PREFACE
From Spiritual Science to Spiritual Racism
This is a study of an unusual movement in an unusual time. It deals with topics
that are difficult to define precisely, and it takes issue with a variety of scholarly and
popular interpretations of several controversial themes. It is both a historical account
of an under-examined chapter in the history of fascism and the history of occultism, as
well as an extended argument about the relevance of unorthodox beliefs about race.
Rather than attempting a comprehensive overview of occult tendencies during the
fascist era, it focuses on one central case study, a movement known as anthroposophy.
Founded by Rudolf Steiner in the early years of the twentieth century, anthroposophy
has become renowned in different parts of the world for its efforts on behalf of
alternative education, holistic health care, organic farming and natural foods,
environmental consciousness, and innovative forms of spiritual expression, among
other causes. At the root of anthroposophy, located on the border between religion and
science, lies an elaborate esoteric philosophy based on Steiner’s teachings. A widely
influential figure in occult circles who was raised in Austria, lived most of his adult
life in Germany, and died in Switzerland, Steiner imparted an international character
to his movement while grounding it firmly in German cultural values. In contemporary
German contexts anthroposophy is recognized as “the most successful form of
‘alternative’ religion in the [twentieth] century.”1
Outside of Germany, the term ‘anthroposophy’ and the name Rudolf Steiner
will be unfamiliar to many readers. Even those who have some experience with the
public face of anthroposophy – through Waldorf schools, biodynamic farming,
1
Stefanie von Schnurbein and Justus Ulbricht, eds., Völkische Religion und Krisen der Moderne:
Entwürfe “arteigener” Glaubenssysteme seit der Jahrhundertwende (Würzburg: Königshausen &
Neumann, 2001), 38.
viii
Camphill communities, Weleda or Demeter products, and so forth – are sometimes
surprised to learn that these phenomena are manifestations of an esoteric worldview. If
the external trappings of anthroposophy are not always widely recognizable, its occult
underpinnings are still less well known. Many anthroposophists today are
apprehensive about ‘occult’ vocabulary, though Steiner and the founding generation of
the movement used it freely. For Steiner’s present followers, what is often important
about anthroposophical principles is not so much their historical pedigree but their
practical application, and anthroposophists have earned respect for their contributions
to pedagogical reform or their commitment to ecological sustainability or their work
with developmentally disabled children and adults. By placing these activities and the
ideas that inspired them into historical perspective, this study will show how
complicated and conflicted their development was, in ways which may alter our
understanding of their present image.
My reconstruction of this contested history will not provide an exhaustive
account of anthroposophy in Nazi Germany or Fascist Italy, and inevitably it will not
do full justice to the complexities involved. One primary task will be to trace the
circuitous path that led from ‘spiritual science’ to ‘spiritual racism.’ Steiner described
anthroposophy as a “spiritual science,” staking a claim which his followers took very
seriously and endeavored to expand and establish as an alternative to what they
viewed as the shortcomings of mainstream science. At the heart of this ambition was
the belief that materialism had degraded scientific thought, and indeed all of modern
culture, and that a thoroughgoing spiritual renewal was necessary in order to revive
humanity’s relationship with both the natural and supernatural worlds.
Anthroposophist efforts in this direction took a wide variety of forms in many
different fields, but the central focus here will be on esoteric conceptions of race and
nation. By the time Germany and Italy embarked on a world war and elevated racial
ix
principles to centerpieces of their regimes, some of Steiner’s followers had gone from
exploring spiritual science and spiritual renewal to propagating “spiritual racism” as
the solution to the modern crisis. The factors that took them down this unforeseen road
did not reflect the trajectory of the anthroposophist movement as a whole, but making
sense of the evolution of occult racial thought under fascism entails understanding the
transition from spiritual renewal to spiritual racism in its starkest form.
The interpretation proposed here is premised on the idea that anthroposophy
embodied a contradictory set of racial and ethnic doctrines which held the potential to
develop in different directions under particular political, social, and cultural
conditions. In spite of anthroposophists’ insistence that their worldview was
‘unpolitical,’ my argument will identify an implicit politics of race running throughout
their public and private statements, a body of assumptions about the cosmic
significance of racial and ethnic attributes that shaped their responses to fascism.
Many of Steiner’s followers considered their own views to be anti-nationalist and antiracist, and there was no straight line that led inexorably to the extreme and explicit
formulations of spiritual racism. What emerged were racial and ethnic stances that
were frequently ambiguous and multivalent but that in several cases found a
comfortable home in fascist contexts precisely because of their spiritual orientation,
one that did not deign to concern itself directly with the distasteful realm of politics.
The resulting history reveals the limits of a spiritual renewal approach to individual
and social change, and of an unpolitical conception of new ways of life, even with the
loftiest of aspirations. For some anthroposophists, such discourses of enlightenment
and emancipation became bound up with authoritarian aims.
These developments did not take place in a vacuum. Anthroposophy was part
of a broader stream of ‘life reform’ movements that held considerable appeal in early
twentieth century Germany and brought together tendencies which seem like strange
x
bedfellows today, such as groups combining vegetarianism and holistic spirituality
with Aryan supremacy. One way to understand cultural and political phenomena like
these is as instances of left-right crossover, a recurrent pattern in Steiner’s era.2 Much
of what made occult racial thought so volatile derived from this fusion of left and
right. Similar dynamics emerged in other parts of Europe as well, and fed into the
diffuse discontent with modern social life which helped pave the way for the rise of
fascism. This combina
Die vollbusige Krankenschwester in Uniform fickt sich durch die Schwerkraft und le
Er steckte seine ganze Faust in den Arsch seiner Freundin und wichst scharf
Hahn saugen Mädchen, die sind begierig zu schlucken