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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Soap (disambiguation) .
This section is missing information about Chemical timeline: since when did the sulfonate surfactants appear? Was the original Palmolive soap in water?. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page . ( December 2020 )
^ IUPAC , Compendium of Chemical Terminology , 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) " Soap ". doi : 10.1351/goldbook.S05721
^ S., Tumosa, Charles (2001-09-01). "A Brief History of Aluminum Stearate as a Component of Paint" . cool.conservation-us.org . Archived from the original on 2017-03-18 . Retrieved 2017-04-05 .
^ "What's The Difference Between Soap and Detergent | cleancult" .
^ Klaus Schumann; Kurt Siekmann (2005). "Soaps". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi : 10.1002/14356007.a24_247 . ISBN 978-3527306732 .
^ (PDF) https://www3.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/registration/fs_PC-031802_01-Nov-06.pdf . {{ cite web }} : Missing or empty |title= ( help )
^ Holman, John S.; Stone, Phil (2001). Chemistry . p. 174. ISBN 9780748762392 .
^ see the main Grease (lubricant) article
^ Thorsten Bartels; et al. (2005). "Lubricants and Lubrication". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi : 10.1002/14356007.a15_423 . ISBN 978-3527306732 .
^ S., Tumosa, Charles (2001-09-01). "A Brief History of Aluminum Stearate as a Component of Paint" . cool.conservation-us.org . Archived from the original on 2017-03-18 . Retrieved 2017-03-17 .
^ Cavitch, Susan Miller. The Natural Soap Book . Storey Publishing, 1994 ISBN 0-88266-888-9 .
^ David J. Anneken, Sabine Both, Ralf Christoph, Georg Fieg, Udo Steinberner, Alfred Westfechtel "Fatty Acids" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2006, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi : 10.1002/14356007.a10_245.pub2
^ Willcox, Michael (2000). "Soap" . In Hilda Butler (ed.). Poucher's Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soaps (10th ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 453. ISBN 978-0-7514-0479-1 . Archived from the original on 2016-08-20. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BCE in ancient Babylon.
^ Jump up to: a b Jürgen Falbe, ed. (2012). Surfactants in Consumer Products . Springer-Verlag. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9783642715457 – via Google Books.
^ Noted in Levey, Martin (1958). "Gypsum, salt and soda in ancient Mesopotamian chemical technology". Isis . 49 (3): 336–342 (341). doi : 10.1086/348678 . JSTOR 226942 . S2CID 143632451 .
^ Zohar Amar , Flora of the Bible , Jerusalem 2012, s.v. ברית , p. 216 (note 34) OCLC 783455868 .
^ Abu-Rabiʻa, ʻAref (2001). Bedouin Century: Education and Development among the Negev Tribes in the Twentieth Century . New York. pp. 47–48. OCLC 47119256 .
^ Jump up to: a b Cohen, Amnon (1989). Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . p. 81. ISBN 0521365511 .
^ soaps p Archived 2011-02-08 at the Wayback Machine . Etymonline.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-20.
^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History , XXVIII.191 . See also Martial , Epigrammata, VIII, 33, 20. Archived 2013-01-21 at the Wayback Machine
^ Jump up to: a b Foreman, Amanda (October 4, 2019). "The Long Road to Cleanliness" . www.wsj.com . Retrieved October 6, 2019 .
^ Aretaeus, The Extant Works of Aretaeus, the Cappadocian , ed. and tr. Francis Adams (London) 1856: 238 and 496 Archived 2016-06-09 at the Wayback Machine , noted in Michael W. Dols, "Leprosy in medieval Arabic medicine" Journal of the History of Medicine 1979:316 note 9; the Gauls with whom the Cappadocian would have been familiar are those of Anatolian Galatia .
^ De Puma, Richard. "A Third-Century B.C.E. Etruscan Tomb Group from Bolsena in the Metropolitan Museum of Art". American Journal of Archaeology : 429–40.
^ Padgett, J. Michael (2002). Objects of Desire: Greek Vases from the John B. Elliot Collection . Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University. pp. 36–48.
^ Partington, James Riddick; Hall, Bert S (1999). A History of Greek Fire and Gun Powder . JHU Press. p. 307 . ISBN 978-0-8018-5954-0 .
^ Jump up to: a b Jones, Geoffrey (2010). "Cleanliness and Civilization" . Beauty Imagined: A History of the Global Beauty Industry . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-160961-9 . Archived from the original on 2016-05-07.
^ Benn, Charles (2002). Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty . Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-19-517665-0 . Archived from the original on 2016-05-05.
^ Jump up to: a b Ahmad Y. al-Hassan (2001), Science and Technology in Islam: Technology and applied sciences , pages 73-74 Archived 2017-12-09 at the Wayback Machine , UNESCO
^ BBC Science and Islam Part 2, Jim Al-Khalili. BBC Productions. Accessed 30 January 2012.
^ Phillips, Michael (March 11, 2008). "Nablus' olive oil soap: a Palestinian tradition lives on" . Institute for Middle East Understanding (IMEU). Archived from the original on July 20, 2008 . Retrieved 2008-03-27 .
^ "Craft Traditions of Palestine" . Sunbula. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved 2008-04-18 .
^ footnote 48, p. 104, Understanding the Middle Ages: the transformation of ideas and attitudes in the Medieval world , Harald Kleinschmidt, illustrated, revised, reprint edition, Boydell & Brewer, 2000, ISBN 0-85115-770-X .
^ Jump up to: a b Anionic and Related Lime Soap Dispersants, Raymond G. Bistline Jr., in Anionic Surfactants: Organic Chemistry , Helmut Stache, ed., Volume 56 of Surfactant science series, CRC Press, 1996, chapter 11, p. 632, ISBN 0-8247-9394-3 .
^ www.soap-flakes.com Archived 2015-05-26 at the Wayback Machine . soap-flakes.com. Retrieved on 2015-10-31.
^ Robinson, James Harvey (1904). Readings in European History: Vol. I . Ginn and co. Archived from the original on 2009-09-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Charles Springer, ed. (1954). A History of Technology, Volume 2 . Clarendon Press. p. 355-356. ISBN 9780198581062 .
^ Nef, John U. (1936). "A Comparison of Industrial Growth in France and England from 1540 to 1640: III". The Journal of Political Economy . 44 (5): 643–666 (660ff.). doi : 10.1086/254976 . JSTOR 1824135 . S2CID 222453265 .
^ Barthélemy, L. (1883) "La savonnerie marseillaise", noted by Nef 1936:660 note 99.
^ Nef 1936:653, 660.
^ Keith Thomas, 'Noisomeness,' London Review of Books , Vol. 42 No. 14, 16 July 2020
^ McNeil, Ian (1990). An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology . Taylor & Francis. pp. 2003–205. ISBN 978-0-415-01306-2 . Archived from the original on 2016-05-05.
^ Ahveninen, Anna (2020-03-31). "Hand sanitiser or soap: making an informed choice for COVID-19" . Curious . Retrieved 2020-08-04 .
^ Pears, Francis (1859). The Skin, Baths, Bathing, and Soap . The author. pp. 100–. Archived from the original on 2016-05-04.
^ Glenday, Craig (2013). Guinness World Records 2014 . pp. 200 . ISBN 9781908843159 .
^ "When Celebrity Endorsers Go Bad" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 2 March 2022 . British actress Lillie Langtry became the world's first celebrity endorser when her likeness appeared on packages of Pears Soap.
^ Richards, Jef I. (2022). A History of Advertising: The First 300,000 Years . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 286.
^ "The Soap Tax" . The Spectator Archive . The Spectator, London. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017 . Retrieved 23 March 2017 .
^ "Repeal of the Soap Tax" . Hansard . UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017 . Retrieved 23 March 2013 .
^ Hansard, Thomas Curson (1864). Hansard's Parliamentary Debates . Uxbridge, England: Forgotten Books. pp. 363–374. ISBN 9780243121328 .
^ [1] , "Improved liquid soap", issued 1865-08-22
^ Prigge, Matthew (2018-01-25). "The Story Behind This Bar of Palmolive Soap" . Milwaukee Magazine . Retrieved 2019-06-27 .
^ "Colgate-Palmolive Company History: Creating Bright Smiles for 200 Years" . Colgate-Palmolive Company . Retrieved 17 October 2012 .
^ "The History of Liquid Soap" . Blue Aspen Originals. Archived from the original on 1 December 2012 . Retrieved 17 October 2012 .
^ Garzena, Patrizia, and Tadiello, Marina (2013). The Natural Soapmaking Handbook . Online information and Table of Contents Archived 2015-07-30 at the Wayback Machine . ISBN 978-0-9874995-0-9 /
^ "The Process of Making Soap" . edtech.mcc.edu . Retrieved 8 March 2020 .
^ "Antibacterial Soaps Concern Experts" . ABC News. 2006-01-06. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014 . Retrieved 12 November 2014 .
Soap at Wikipedia's sister projects
Soap is a salt of a fatty acid used in a variety of cleansing and lubricating products. [1] In a domestic setting, soaps are surfactants usually used for washing , bathing , and other types of housekeeping . In industrial settings, soaps are used as thickeners , components of some lubricants , and precursors to catalysts .
When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article being cleaned. In hand washing , as a surfactant, when lathered with a little water, soap kills microorganisms by disorganizing their membrane lipid bilayer and denaturing their proteins . It also emulsifies oils, enabling them to be carried away by running water. [2]
Soap is created by mixing fats and oils with a base , [3] as opposed to detergent which is created by combining chemical compounds in a mixer.
Humans have used soap for millennia. Evidence exists for the production of soap-like materials in ancient Babylon around 2800 BC.
Since they are salts of fatty acids, soaps have the general formula ( RCO 2 − ) n M n+ (Where R is an alkyl , M is a metal and n is the charge of the cation ). The major classification of soaps is determined by the identity of M n+ . When M is Na (Sodium) or K (Potassium), the soaps are called toilet soaps , used for handwashing. Many metal dications ( Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , and others) give metallic soap . When M is Li , the result is lithium soap (e.g., lithium stearate ), which is used in high-performance greases . [4] A cation from an organic base such as ammonium can be used instead of a metal; ammonium nonanoate is an ammonium-based soap that is used as an herbicide. [5]
Unlike detergents, when used in hard water soap does not lather well and a scum of stearate , a common ingredient in soap, forms as an insoluble precipitate. [6]
Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases and thickeners. Greases are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap and mineral oil . [7] Many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium , sodium , and mixtures thereof. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils. In ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil . [8]
Metal soaps are also included in modern artists' oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier. [9]
Most metal soaps are prepared by the hydrolysis of methane into ethanoic acid and fatty acids:
In a domestic setting, "soap" usually refers to what is technically called a toilet soap, used for household and personal cleaning. When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article being cleaned.
The insoluble oil/fat molecules become associated inside micelles , tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting) pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making it soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water.
The production of toilet soaps usually entails saponification of triglycerides , which are vegetable or animal oils and fats. An alkaline solution (often lye or sodium hydroxide ) induces saponification whereby the triglyceride fats first hydrolyze into salts of fatty acids. Glycerol (glycerin) is liberated. The glycerin can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, although it is sometimes separated. [10]
The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide , are firm, whereas potassium soaps, derived from potassium hydroxide , are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard. These are used exclusively in greases .
For making toilet soaps, triglycerides (oils and fats) are derived from coconut, olive, or palm oils, as well as tallow . [11] Triglyceride is the chemical name for the tri esters of fatty acids and glycerin . Tallow, i.e., rendered fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals. Each species offers quite different fatty acid content, resulting in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made from pure olive oil , sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap , is reputed for its particular mildness. The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps from a mixture of oils, but a high percentage of olive oil.
The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon . [12] [ clarification needed ] A formula for making soap was written on a Sumerian clay tablet around 2500 BC; the soap was produced by heating a mixture of oil and wood ash , the earliest recorded chemical reaction, and used for washing woolen clothing. [13]
The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates the ancient Egyptians used soap as a medicine and combined animal fats or vegetable oils with a soda ash substance called Trona to create their soaps. [13] Egyptian documents mention a similar substance was used in the preparation of wool for weaving. [ citation needed ]
In the reign of Nabonidus (556–539 BC), a recipe for soap consisted of uhulu [ashes], cypress [oil] and sesame [seed oil] "for washing the stones for the servant girls". [14]
In the Land of Israel , the ashes from barilla plants , such as species of Salsola , saltwort ( Seidlitzia rosmarinus ) and Anabasis , were used in soap production, known as potash . [15] [16] Soap made from potash (a concentrate of burnt wood or vegetable ashes mixed with lard or olive oil) is alkaline. If animal lard were used, it was heated and kept lukewarm (not boiling hot; neither cold). Lard, collected from suet , needed to be rendered and strained before being used with ashes (with the recommended consistency of 1 cup of lard to 3/8 cup of concentrated ash water). Traditionally, olive oil was used instead of animal lard throughout the Levant , which was boiled in a copper cauldron for several days. [17] As the boiling progresses, alkali ashes and smaller quantities of quicklime were added, and constantly stirred. [17] In the case of lard, it required constant stirring while kept lukewarm until it began to trace. Once it began to thicken, the brew was poured into a mold and left to cool and harden for two weeks. After hardening, it was cut into smaller cakes. Aromatic herbs were often added to the rendered soap to impart their fragrance, such as yarrow leaves, lavender , germander , etc. This ancient method is still in use in the production of Nabulsi soap . [ citation needed ]
The word sapo , Latin for soap, likely was borrowed from an early Germanic language and is cognate with Latin sebum , " tallow ". It first appears in Pliny the Elder 's account, [18] Historia Naturalis , which discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes. There he mentions its use in the treatment of scrofulous sores , as well as among the Gauls as a dye to redden hair which the men in Germania were more likely to use than women. [19] The Romans avoided washing with harsh soaps before encountering the milder soaps used by the Gauls around 58 BC. [20] Aretaeus of Cappadocia , writing in the 2nd century AD, observes among "Celts, which are men called Gauls, those alkaline substances that are made into balls [...] called soap ". [21] The Romans' preferred method of cleaning the body was to massage oil into the skin and then scrape away both the oil and any dirt with a strigil . [22] The standard design is a curved blade with a handle, all of which is made of metal. [23]
The 2nd-century AD physician Galen describes soap-making using lye and prescribes washing to carry away impurities from the body and clothes. The use of soap for personal cleanliness became increasingly common in this period. According to Galen, the best soaps were Germanic, and soaps from Gaul were second best. Zosimos of Panopolis , circa 300 AD, describes soap and soapmaking. [24]
A detergent similar to soap was manufactured in ancient China from the seeds of Gleditsia sinensis . [25] Another traditional detergent is a mixture of pig pancreas and plant ash called zhuyizi ( simplified Chinese : 猪胰子 ; traditional
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