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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Meretrix" redirects here. For the clam genus, see Meretrix (bivalve) .
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Dillon & Garland 2005 , p. 382.
^ Jump up to: a b c Strong 2016 , pp. 142–170.
^ Edwards 1997 , pp. 66-.
^ McGinn 2004 , pp. 167–168.
^ Taylor, Rabun (2010). "A Documentary History of Naples: Ancient Naples, Chapter Four - Neapolis and the Rise of Rome" . SSRN Electronic Journal . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1676285 . ISSN 1556-5068 .
^ McGinn 1998 , p. 56.
^ Valerius Maximus 6.1.6
^ Richlin, Amy (1993). "Not before Homosexuality: The Materiality of the Cinaedus and the Roman Law against Love between Men". Journal of the History of Sexuality . 3 (4): 523–73. JSTOR 3704392 .
^ McGinn 1998 , p. 293.
^ McGinn 1998 , p. 171.
^ Adams, J. N., Words for "prostitute" in Latin , University of Koeln, 1983, pp. 325 - 358 [1]
^ McGinn 2004 , p. 2.
^ McGinn 2004 , p. 52.
^ Jump up to: a b c Baird, J. A. (2015). "On Reading the Material Culture of Ancient Sexual Labor" . Helios . 42 (1): 163–175. doi : 10.1353/hel.2015.0001 . ISSN 1935-0228 .
^ Sokala 1998 , pp. 5–35.
^ Balsdon 1963 , p. 227.
^ Jump up to: a b H. Nettleship/J. E. Sandys eds., A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1894) p. 293
^ Balsdon 1963 , p. 192.
^ Adams, J. N., Words for "prostitute" in Latin , University of Koeln, 1983, p. 342
^ R.I. Frank, "Augustan Elegy and Catonism ," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.30.1 (1982), p. 569.
^ Edwards 1997 , pp. 81–82.
^ Balsdon 1963 , pp. 224, 252-4 and p. 327n.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwards 1997 , p. 81.
^ Alastair J. L. Blanshard, Sex: Vice and Love from Antiquity to Modernity (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), p. 24.
^ Seneca, Controv. lib. i, 2. Horace dwells at length on the inspection of female flesh: "The matron has no softer thigh nor has she a more beautiful leg, though the setting be one of pearls and emeralds (with all due respect to thy opinion, Cerinthus), the togaed plebeian's is often the finer, and, in addition, the beauties of figure are not camouflaged; that which is for sale, if honest, is shown openly, whereas deformity seeks concealment. It is the custom among kings that, when buying horses, they inspect them in the open, lest, as is often the case, a beautiful head is sustained by a tender hoof and the eager purchaser may be seduced by shapely hocks, a short head, or an arching neck. Are these experts right in this? Thou canst appraise a figure with the eyes of Lynceus and discover its beauties; though blinder than Hypoesea herself thou canst see what deformities there are. Ah, what a leg! What arms! But how thin her buttocks are, in very truth what a huge nose she has, she's short-waisted, too, and her feet are out of proportion! Of the matron, except for the face, nothing is open to your scrutiny unless she is a Catia who has dispensed with her clothing so that she may be felt all over thoroughly, the rest will be hidden. But as for the other, no difficulty there! Through the Coan silk it is as easy for you to see as if she were naked, whether she has an unshapely leg, whether her foot is ugly; her waist you can examine with your eyes" ( Satire I, ii).
^ Jump up to: a b Petronius 2009 , chap. 7.
^ Juvenal, Satire vi, 121 et seq.
^ Jump up to: a b c Glancy; Moore (2011). "How Typical a Roman Prostitute Is Revelation's "Great Whore"?". Journal of Biblical Literature . 130 (3): 551. doi : 10.2307/41304219 . JSTOR 41304219 .
^ "The History of Prostitution, its Extent, Causes and Effects Throughout the World" . JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association . XXIV (26): 1021. 29 June 1895. doi : 10.1001/jama.1895.02430260027015 . hdl : 2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t57d3fh2p . ISSN 0098-7484 .
^ McGinn, Thomas A. J. (27 February 2003), "Civic Disabilities" , Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome , Oxford University Press, pp. 21–69, ISBN 978-0-19-516132-8 , retrieved 8 April 2020
^ Richlin, Amy (1993). "Not before Homosexuality: The Materiality of the Cinaedus and the Roman Law against Love between Men". Journal of the History of Sexuality . 3 (4): 523–573. ISSN 1043-4070 . JSTOR 3704392 .
^ McGinn 2004 , p. 4.
^ Plautus, Poenulus [ citation needed ]
^ Sanger, William (1897). The History of Prostitution: Its Extent, Causes, and Effects Throughout the World . Medical Publishing Company.
^ Suetonius, Calig. xi.
^ Lamprid. Alex. Severus, chap. 24.
^ Ovid 2003 , p. 318, note.
^ McGinn 2004 , pp. 7–8.
^ The two extant regionaries for the city of Rome enumerate landmarks, temples, attractions, public facilities, and private buildings in each of the city's 14 regions in the mid-4th century. See Curiosum Urbis and Notitia Notitia de Regionibus at LacusCurtius by Bill Thayer
^ Adler, Description of the City of Rome, pp. 144 et seq.
^ Ulpian, Law as to Female Slaves Making Claim to Heirship. [ citation needed ]
^ Seneca , Cont. i, 2. See also Horace , Satire i, 2, 30 ("on the other hand, another will have none at all except she be standing in the evil-smelling cell" of the brothel); Petronius , Satyricon" xxii ("worn out by all his troubles, Ascyltos commenced to nod, and the maid, whom he had slighted, and, of course, insulted, smeared lamp-black all over his face"); Priapeia xiii, 9 ("whoever likes may enter here, smeared with the black soot of the brothel").
^ Seneca, Controv. i, 2: "you stood with the prostitutes, you stood decked out to please the public, wearing the costume the pimp had furnished you."
^ Seneca, Controv. lib. i, 2.
^ Plautus, Asin. iv, i, 9.
^ Balsdon 1963 , pp. 218 and 225-6.
^ Duncan 2006 , p. 13.
^ McGinn 2004 , p. 11.
^ Duncan 2006 , p. 259.
^ Duckworth 1994 , p. 253.
^ Codex Theodos. lx, tit. 7, ed. Ritter; Ulpian liiii, 23, De Ritu Nupt.
^ Horace, Sat. lib. i, v, 82.
^ Mommsen, Inscr. Regn. Neap. 5078, which is number 7306 in Orelli-Henzen.
^ Paulus Diaconus, xiii, 2.
^ Plautus, i, ii, 54.
^ Jane DeRose Evans (2009). "Prostitutes in the Portico of Pompey?: A Reconsideration" . Transactions of the American Philological Association . 139 (1): 123–145. doi : 10.1353/apa.0.0025 . ISSN 1533-0699 .
^ Ovid, Fasti 4, as discussed by T.P. Wiseman , The Myths of Rome (University of Exeter Press, 2004), pp. 1–11.
^ Ovid, Fasti 4.133–134.
^ Jump up to: a b Culham 2004 , p. 144.
^ Edwards 1997 , p. 82.
^ According to the Fasti Praenestini ; Craig A. Williams, Roman Homosexuality (Oxford University Press, 1999, 2010), p. 32.
^ Lactantius, Instit. Divin. 20.6.
^ Juvenal, Satire 6.250–251, as cited by Culham, "Women in the Roman Republic," p. 144.
^ Biffi 2000 , p. 15.
^ Phillips & Reay (2002) , p. 93.
^ Brundage 1990 , p. 308.
^ Carla Freccero, Queer/Early/Modern (2005) p. 37
^ Martha C. Nussbaum /Juha Sivola, The Sleep of Reason (2002) p. 247-8
Balsdon, John Percy Vyvian Dacre (1963), Roman Women. Their History and Habits , J. Day
Biffi, Giacomo (2000), Casta meretrix: "the chaste whore" : an essay on the ecclesiology of St. Ambrose , Saint Austin Press, ISBN 978-1-901157-34-5
Brundage, James A. (1990), "Prostitution", Law, sex, and Christian society in medieval Europe , University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-07784-0
Culham, Phyllis (2004), "Women in the Roman Republic", in Flower, Harriet I. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic , Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781107669420
Dillon, Matthew; Garland, Lynda (2005), Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar , Taylor & Francis, ISBN 9780415224581
Duckworth, George Eckel (1994), The nature of Roman comedy: a study in popular entertainment , University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-2620-3
Duncan, Anne (2006), "Infamous performers : comic actors and female prostitutes in Rome", in Faraone, Christopher A.; McClure, Laura (eds.), Prostitutes and Courtesans in the Ancient World , Wisconsin studies in classics, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press , ISBN 0-299-21314-5
Edwards, Catherine (1997), "Unspeakable Professions Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome", in Hallett, Judith P.; Skinner, Marilyn B. (eds.), Roman Sexualities , Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691011788
McGinn, Thomas A. J. (1998), Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome , Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195161328
McGinn, Thomas A. (2004), The economy of prostitution in the Roman world: a study of social history & the brothel , University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0-472-11362-0
Ovid (2003), Gibson, Roy K. (ed.), Ars Amatoria , Cambridge University Press , ISBN 978-0-521-81370-9
Petronius (2009), The Satyricon , OUP Oxford, ISBN 9780199539215
Phillips, Kim M.; Reay, Barry (2002), Sexualities in History: A Reader , Routledge, ISBN 9780415929356
Sokala, Andrzej (1998), Meretrix i jej pozycja w prawie rzymskim (in Polish), Nicolaus Copernicus University Press , ISBN 978-83-231-0995-2
Strong, Anise K. (2016), "Prostitutes and matrons in the urban landscape", Prostitutes and Matrons in the Roman World , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , pp. 142–170, doi : 10.1017/CBO9781316563083.007 , ISBN 9781316563083
Prostitution in ancient Rome was legal and licensed. In ancient Rome , even Roman men of the highest social status were free to engage prostitutes of either sex without incurring moral disapproval, [1] as long as they demonstrated self-control and moderation in the frequency and enjoyment of sex. [2] Brothels were considered a popular place of entertainment for Roman men, and it was undoubtedly a part of the culture of ancient Rome . [2] At the same time, the prostitutes themselves were considered shameful: most were either slaves or former slaves, or if free by birth relegated to the infames , people utterly lacking in social standing and deprived of most protections accorded to citizens under Roman law , a status they shared with actors and gladiators , all of whom, however, exerted sexual allure. [3] Some large brothels in the 4th century, when Rome was becoming officially Christianized , seem to have been counted as tourist attractions and were possibly state-owned. [4] There were two types of sexual slavery: patronage and prostitution . Prostitutes had to pay a tax, where patronages did not, though it was deemed more acceptable to be the latter. [5]
Most prostitutes were slaves or freedwomen, and it is difficult to determine the balance of voluntary to forced prostitution . Because slaves were considered property under Roman law, it was legal for an owner to employ them as prostitutes. [6] The 1st-century historian Valerius Maximus presents a story of complicated sexual psychology in which a freedman had been forced by his owner to prostitute himself during his time as a slave; the freedman kills his own young daughter when she loses her virginity to her tutor. [7] [8]
Sometimes the seller of a female slave attached a ne serva clause to the ownership papers to prevent her from being prostituted. The ne serva clause meant that if the new owner or any owner afterwards used the slave as a prostitute she would be free. [9]
A law of Augustus allowed that women guilty of adultery could be sentenced to forced prostitution in brothels. The law was abolished in 389. [10]
Latin literature makes frequent reference to prostitutes. Historians such as Livy and Tacitus mention prostitutes who had acquired some degree of respectability through patriotic, law-abiding, or euergetic behavior. The high-class " call girl " ( meretrix ) is a stock character in Plautus 's comedies , which were influenced by Greek models . The poems of Catullus , Horace , Ovid , Martial , and Juvenal , as well the Satyricon of Petronius , offer fictional or satiric glimpses of prostitutes. Real-world practices are documented by provisions of Roman law that regulate prostitution, and by inscriptions , especially graffiti from Pompeii . Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum from sites presumed to be brothels has also contributed to scholarly views on prostitution. [2]
A meretrix (plural: meretrices ) was a registered female prostitute , a higher class of sex worker—the more pejorative scortum could be used for prostitutes of either gender. Unregistered or casual prostitutes fell under the broad category prostibulae , 'lower class'. [11] Although both women and men might engage male or female prostitutes, evidence for female prostitution is the more ample. [12]
There is some evidence that slave prostitutes could benefit from their labor; [13] in general, slaves could earn their own money by hiring out their skills or taking a profit from conducting their owner's business.
A prostitute could be self-employed and rent a room for work. A girl ( puella , a term used in poetry as a synonym for "girlfriend" or meretrix and not necessarily an age designation) might live with a procuress or madame ( lena ) or even go into business under the management of her mother, [1] though mater might sometimes be a mere euphemism for lena . [ citation needed ] These arrangements suggest the recourse to prostitution by free-born women in dire financial need, and such prostitutes may have been regarded as of relatively higher repute or social degree. [1] Prostitutes could also work out of a brothel or tavern for a procurer or pimp ( leno ). Most prostitutes seem to have been slaves or former slaves. [1] The price of a prostitute was a little more than a loaf of bread. [14]
In Roman law, the status of meretrices was specifically and closely regulated. [15] They were obliged to register with the aediles , [16] and (from Caligula's day onwards) to pay imperial tax. [17] They were regarded as " infamous persons " and were denied many of the civic rights due to citizens. They could not give evidence in court, [17] and Roman freeborn men were forbidden to marry them. [18] There were, however, degrees of infamia and the consequent loss of privilege attendant on sexual misbehaviour. A convicted adulteress of citizen status who registered herself as a meretrix could thus at least partly mitigate her loss of rights and status. [19]
Some professional prostitutes, perhaps to be compared to courtesans , cultivated elite patrons and could become wealthy. The dictator Sulla is supposed to have built his fortune on the wealth left to him by a prostitute in her will. [1] Romans also assumed that actors and dancers were available to provide paid sexual services, and courtesans whose names survive in the historical record are sometimes indistinguishable from actresses and other performers. [1] In the time of Cicero , the courtesan Cytheris was a welcome guest for dinner parties at the highest level of Roman society. Charming, artistic, and educated, such women contributed to a new romantic standard for male–female relationships that Ovid and other Augustan poets articulated in their erotic elegies. [20]
It was common throughout Rome for prostitutes to dress differently from citizens. At a site near Pompeii, a gold bracelet was found on the body of a thirty-year-old woman inscribed with "the master to his very own slave girl." This bracelet is a reminder that not every slave was treated the same. Several paintings in Pompeii show prostitutes completely naked, or sometimes with gold body chains and other expensive jewelry. [14]
From the late Republican or early Imperial era onwards, meretrices may have worn the toga when in public, through compulsion or choice. The possible reasons for this remain a subject of modern scholarly speculation. Togas were otherwise the formal attire of citizen men, while respectable adult freeborn women and matrons wore the stola . This crossing of gender boundaries has been interpreted variously. At the very least, the wearing of a toga would have served to set the meretrix apart from respectable women, and suggest her sexual availability; [21] Bright colors – "Colores meretricii" – and jewelled anklets also marked them out from respectable women. [22]
In Pompeii, there have been artifacts found that may suggest some sexually enslaved people may have worn jewelry gifted to them by their masters. [14]
Expensive courtesans wore gaudy garments of see-through silk. [23]
Some passages by Roman authors seem to indicate that prostitutes displayed themselves in the nude. Nudity was associated with slavery, as an indication that the person was literally stripped of privacy and the ownership of one's own body. [24] A passage from Seneca describes the condition of the prostitute as a slave for sale:
Naked she stood on the shore, at the pleasure of the purchaser; every part of her body was examined and felt. Would you hear the result of the sale? The pirate sold; the pimp bought, that he might employ her as a prostitute. [25]
In the Satyricon , Petronius 's narrator relates how he "saw some men prowling stealthily between the rows of name-boards and naked prostitutes". [26] The satirist Juvenal describes a prostitute as standing naked "with gilded nipples" at the entrance to her cell. [27] The adjective nudus , however, can also mean "exposed" or stripped of one's outer clothing, and the erotic wall paintings of Pompeii and Herculaneum show women presumed to be prostitutes wearing the Roman equivalent of a bra even while actively engaged in sex acts.
Ancient Roman sex slaves were bought by the wealthy, where sex workers (prostitutes) were men and women often employed by ex-slaves. The sex workers would have lower class patrons, where the upper class, wealthy men could just buy sex slaves. If the prostitutes worked out of a brothel, they rarely left the brothel. Each prostitute was given their own small room (or cell) to go about their business. Here, they would be either completely nude or very scantily clad. [28] Sex slaves, however, had a different life. It is possible some sex slaves had tattoos branding them as such, especially since tattoos were so closely linked to slavery. Tattoos and nudity are common for the lowest rank of slavery, so it is not out of the question to consider that the two may have been inflicted on se
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