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Codeine, medically the most widely used opiate, is mostly derived from morphine, isolated from opium and poppy straw Papaver somniferum , opium poppy. Morphine, however, is greatly misused by illegal conversion into its diacetyl-derivative: heroin. The discovery of an efficient alternative medicine or a source for codeine other than opium poppy may contribute to a curtailment of the heroin market. No major adverse properties should be present in such a new medicine or codeine source. In this paper the search for the latter is discussed with regards to the natural occurrence of morphinan derivatives and the biosynthetic pathways in available plants. Economic and social problems connected with the introduction of a new biological source for opiates are reviewed. This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access. Rent this article via DeepDyve. Institutional subscriptions. Anonymous C. Opium-free poppy under study as codeine source. Science Google Scholar. The peculiar politics of the safer poppy. Week 33— Mass production of opium alkaloids? Asahina, H. Kawatani, M. Studies of poppies and opium. CAS Google Scholar. Vamvacas, H. Schmid, and P. Acta — Article Google Scholar. Barnes, R. The alkaloids of Croton salutaris. Phytochemistry — Barton, D. Kirby, W. Steglich, G. Thomas, A. Battersby, T. Dobson, and H. Investigations on the biosynthesis of morphine alkaloids. Battersby, A. Jones, R. Kazlauskas, C. Poupat, C. Thornber, S. Ruchirawat, and J. The biosynthesis of hasubanonine and protostephanine. Minta, A. Ottridge, and J. Biosynthetic derivation of hasubanonine and protostephanine from the 1-benzylisoquinoline system. Tetrahedron Lett. Bazilevskaya, N. Translated from Byull. Prikladnoi Bot. Rastenievodsta 95— Bentley, K. The morphine alkaloids. Manske, ed, The Alkaloids, Chemistry and Physiology. XIII, p. Academic Press, New York. Beyerman, H. Lie, L. Maat, H. Bosman, E. Buurman, E. Bijsterveld, and H. A convenient synthesis of codeine and morphine. Recueil Trav. Pays-Bas 24— Borkowski, P. Horn, and H. Role of 1,2-dehydroreticulinium ion in the biosynthetic conversion of reticuline to thebaine. Brochmann-Hanssen, E. Leung, and W. Opium alkaloids XIII. Isolation of hydroxythebaine. Brossi, A. Remarkable progress towards a practical synthesis of codeine. Discovery of novel and highly active morphinan analgesics. Trends Pharmacol. Chambers, C. Haynes, and K. Norsinoacutine and salutaridine isolated from Croton balsamifera Jacq. Soc, Chem. Chau-Pam, T. The opiate receptors and the discovery of opioidlike peptides. Drug Metabolism Rev. Cochin, J. The opium shortage: Politics and health. New England J. Duke, J. Utilization of Papaver. Eddy, N. Friebel, K. Hahn, and H. Codeine and its alternates for pain and cough relief. Codeine, exclusive of its antitussive action. Alternates for pain relief. The antitussive action of codeine—mechanism, methodology and evaluation. Potential alternates for cough relief. Discussion and summary. WHO, Geneva. Fairbairn, J. Handa, E. Fulton, C. The opium poppy and other poppies. Treasury Dept. Printing Office, Washington, DC. Goldblatt, P. Biosystematic studies in Papaver section Oxytona. Missouri Bot. Greentree, L. No opium for pain. Haynes, L. Husbands, and K. The alkaloids 8,dihydrosalutaridine and 8,dihydronorsalutaridine from Croton linearis Jacq. Heinstein, P. Future approaches to the formation of secondary natural products in plant cell suspension cultures. Hodges, C. Morphinan alkaloids in Papaver bracteatum : Biosynthesis and fate. Enzymatic reduction of codeinone in vitro cell-free systems from Papaver somniferum and P. Enzymatic conversion of reticuline to salutaridine by cell-free systems from Papaver somniferum. Biochemistry — Morphinan alkaloids in callus cultures of Papaver somniferum. Hofmann, A. Die Isolierung weiterer Alkaloide aus Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. Horn, J. Paul, and H. Biosynthetic conversion of thebaine to codeinone. Mechanism of ketone formation from enol ether in vivo. Hsu, A. Effect of protein synthesis inhibitors on cell growth and alkaloid production in cell cultures of Papaver somniferum. Hughes, J. Smith, H. Kosterlitz, L. Fothergill, B. Morgan, and H. Identification of two related pentapeptides from the brain with potent opiate agonist activity. Nature — Ikonomovski, K. Preparation of codeine by methylation of morphine with phenyltrimeth- ylammonium methoxide. Acta Pharm. Jugoslavia — Israilov, I. Denisenko, M. Yunusov, S. Yunusov, and D. Oripavidine—A new alkaloid from Papaver orientale. Jusiak, L. Soczewinski, and A. Chromatographic analysis of alkaloid extracts from the flowers of the corn poppy Papaver rhoeas. Moist buffered paper chromatography. Kamo, K. Kimoto, A. Hsu, P. Mahlberg, and D. Morphinane alkaloids in cultured tissues and redifferentiated organs of Papaver somniferum. Kettenes-Van den Bosch, J. Salemink, and I. Biological activity of the alkaloids of Papaver bracteatum Lindl. Khanna, P. Production of opium alkaloids from in vitro tissue culture of Papaver rhoeas Linn. Indian J. Konowalowa, R. Yunussoff, and A. Krikorian, A. Some observations on the cultivation of opium poppy. Papaver somniferum L. Die Gattung Papaver und ihre Alkaloide. Pharmazie — Thomas, and S. Die Alkaloide der Gattung Papaver. Humboldt- Univ. Berlin, Math. Salemink, M. Bastart, and M. Alkaloids of Papaver bracteatum : Presence of codeine, neopine and alpinine. Lalezari, I. Nasseri, and R. Papaver bracteatum Lindl. Thebaine producing plants of Iran. Acta Hort. Manushakyan, M. Israilov, V. Mnatsakanyan, M. Yunusov, and S. Alkaloids of Papaver urbanianum. Isolierung der Alkaloide aus einigen Arten der Gattung Papaver. McNaughton, I. Papaver L. Miller, R. Jolies, and H. Morphine metabolism and normorphine in Papaver somniferum. Mouranche, A. Mushinskaya, S. Kovalev, and Yu. The isolation of oxydimorphine from poppy capsules. Nielsen, B. Oripavine—A new opium alkaloid. Nyman, U. Hereditas 43— Doctoral Thesis, Uppsala Univ. Orekhov, A. Chemistry of Alkaloids. Akademiia Nauk. USSR, Moscow. Parker, H. Blaschke, and H. Biosynthetic conversion of thebaine to codeine. Phillipson, J. Members of the Miltantha section of Papaver as a source of morphinane alkaloids. Sariyar, and T. Alkaloids from Papaver fugax of Turkish origin. Handa, and S. N -Oxides of morphine, codeine and thebaine and their occurrence in Papaver species. Scutt, A. Baytop, N. Alkaloids from Turkish samples of Papaver orientale and P. Pl Med. Gray, and G. Alkaloids from Papaver armeniacum, P. Infraspecific variation and alkaloids of Papaver species. Proska, B. Isolation of phenolic alkaloids from poppy plants Papaver somniferum L. Pharmazie Ree, J. Slangen, and D. Intravenous self-administration of drugs in rats. PubMed Google Scholar. Rice, K. A rapid, high-yield conversion of codeine to morphine. Thebaine methochloride from Papaver bracteatum. Papaveraceae alkaloids. Sariyar, G. Macrantaline and macrantoridine, new alkaloids from a Turkish sample of Papaver pseudo-orientale. Alkaloids from Papaver cylindricum. Alkaloids of Papaver species of the section Miltantha growing in Turkey. Doga, Seri A 7: 93— Alkaloids from Papaver triniifolium of Turkish origin. Seddigh, M. Jolliff, W. Calhoun, and J. Papaver bracteatum , potential commercial source of codeine. Shafiee, A. Lalezari, S. Lajevardi, and F. Alkaloids of Glaucium flavum Grantz, populations Isfahan and Kazerun. Lalezari, F. Assadi, and F. Alkaloids of Papaver orientale L. Ghanbarpour, I. Lalezari, and S. Alkaloids of Papaver genus XI. Alkaloids of Glaucium vitellinum , population Isfahan. Slavik, J. On alkaloids from Papaver syriacum Boiss. Collection Czechoslov. Occurrence of morphine as a minor alkaloid in Papaver decaisnei Hochst. Alkaloids from Papaver albiflorum subsp. Sohar, P. Patent 3,, July 8, Sokolov, V. Alkaloid Plants of the U. Staba, E. Zito, and M. Alkaloid production from Papaver tissue culture. Studies aiming at the synthesis of morphine II. Theuns, H. Luteijn, and C. Belge — Tiwari, K. Choudhary, and G. United Nations Document. Research to increase codeine production. The feasibility of the conversion of thebaine into drugs of abuse and of potential abuse. The biosynthesis of phenanthrene alkaloids in Papaver species. See p. Verhoeven, W. Botter, A. Sunier, J. Lancet — Wei, E. Physical dependence on opiate-like peptides. Science — WHO-Advisory Group. The dependence potential of thebaine. WHO-Scientific Group. Opiates and their alternates for pain and cough relief. Wied, D. Bohus, J. Lancet Wilson, M. Studies on early stages of Papaver alkaloid biogenesis. Zito, S. Thebaine from root cultures of Papaver bracteatum. Download references. Robert J. Lousberg Director of Public Health for Drugs. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Reprints and permissions. Search for new natural sources of morphinans. Econ Bot 40 , — Download citation. Received : 26 December Accepted : 10 March Issue Date : October Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Economic Botany Aims and scope Submit manuscript. Abstract Codeine, medically the most widely used opiate, is mostly derived from morphine, isolated from opium and poppy straw Papaver somniferum , opium poppy. Access this article Log in via an institution. Literature Cited Anonymous C. Google Scholar Anonymous. Article Google Scholar Barnes, R. Article Google Scholar Battersby, A. Article Google Scholar —, A. Article Google Scholar Bazilevskaya, N. Google Scholar Bentley, K. Google Scholar Beyerman, H. Article Google Scholar Brossi, A. Google Scholar Chau-Pam, T. Article Google Scholar Cochin, J. CAS Google Scholar —, —, —, and —. Google Scholar Fairbairn, J. 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