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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. Amphetamines elevate extracellular dopamine, but the underlying mechanisms remain uncertain. Here we show in rodents that acute pharmacological inhibition of the vesicular monoamine transporter VMAT blocks amphetamine-induced locomotion and self-administration without impacting cocaine-induced behaviours. To study VMAT's role in mediating amphetamine action in dopamine neurons, we have used novel genetic, pharmacological and optical approaches in Drosophila melanogaster. In an ex vivo whole-brain preparation, fluorescent reporters of vesicular cargo and of vesicular pH reveal that amphetamine redistributes vesicle contents and diminishes the vesicle pH-gradient responsible for dopamine uptake and retention. Amphetamine-induced vesicle deacidification also requires functional dopamine transporter DAT at the plasma membrane. Thus, we find that at pharmacologically relevant concentrations, amphetamines must be actively transported by DAT and VMAT in tandem to produce psychostimulant effects. Amphetamines are known to enhance extracellular dopamine levels, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Utilising a new pH biosensor for synaptic vesicles, the authors show that amphetamines diminish vesicle pH gradients, disrupting dopamine packaging and leading to increased neurotransmitter release. Amphetamines' psychostimulant effects are generally thought to result from increased extracellular dopamine mediated by efflux of cytoplasmic dopamine through the dopamine transporter DAT 2. How amphetamines mobilize dopamine from vesicles to the cytoplasm for subsequent efflux is less clear. Whether amphetamines also act directly on VMAT to redistribute dopamine from vesicles into the cytoplasm has been debated, and numerous mechanisms have been proposed 6. Amphetamines interact with VMAT in vitro , leading some investigators to conclude that they act as non-substrate inhibitors that elevate cytoplasmic dopamine by simply blocking its accumulation into vesicles and thus making more available for efflux 7. Others have inferred that amphetamines are substrates of VMAT that drive carrier-mediated exchange of vesicular monoamines into the cytoplasm 8 , 9. Amphetamines are weak bases pK a 8. Evidence for these diverse mechanisms has come in large part from in vitro studies of isolated vesicles, cells and brain slices, but the actual relevance of these proposed mechanisms to amphetamines' in vivo actions has not been ascertained. Earlier work by Dwoskin and colleagues showed that tetrabenazine and lobeline analogues, which are inhibitors of the neuronal VMAT isoform, VMAT2, blocked methamphetamine's behavioural action in rodents 16 , This selective antagonism indicates that VMAT function is required for the acute actions of amphetamines to release dopamine from intraluminal stores. To elucidate how amphetamines act on synaptic vesicles to release dopamine into the cytoplasm, we developed an experimental system in Drosophila melanogaster using a functionally viable ex vivo brain preparation Actions of amphetamines were studied in this whole-brain preparation using small synthetic and genetically-encoded fluorescent reporters visualized by multiphoton microscopy. We used the second-generation fluorescent false neurotransmitter FFN ref. To examine the effects of amphetamines on vesicle pH, we expressed the synaptic vesicle pH biosensor, dVMAT-pHluorin 18 , in dopaminergic neurons, which allowed us to monitor real-time changes in synaptic vesicle pH in whole living brain. Both cocaine and amphetamines are expected to produce locomotor and self-administration behaviours through the common step of elevating extracellular dopamine levels Mean and s. For self-administration rates 0. Building on these findings in rodents, we established a novel experimental system in D. The genetic tractability of Drosophila permits targeted manipulation of gene expression to determine contributions of individual genes to amphetamine's actions and the neuronal pathways in which they function. Using a behavioural assay of amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion 20 , 21 , we first examined whether the sole Drosophila VMAT isoform, dVMAT, is required for amphetamine to produce its behavioural effects in larvae. The amphetamine-induced increase in crawling velocity was approximately fivefold greater in WT than in dVMA T null mutants, demonstrating that VMAT is essential for amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion. See Supplementary Fig. To identify the presynaptic neuronal populations that mediate dVMAT's contribution to amphetamine-induced locomotion, we restricted dVMAT expression to different monoaminergic populations. These larvae had a baseline crawling velocity 0. Thus, dVMAT expression specifically in dopamine neurons plays a critical role in mediating amphetamine-stimulated behaviour in flies, consistent with voluminous data that dopamine is the primary mediator of amphetamine's psychomotor stimulatory action in mammals 2 , To analyse the mechanisms of monoamine loading and release from synaptic vesicles, we used an ex vivo whole fly brain preparation to optically monitor monoaminergic vesicle content by multiphoton microscopy. Labelling was observed in the antennal lobes, suboesophageal ganglion and the protocerebrum Fig. Residual signal was primarily autofluorescence from tracheal structures triangle 74 as well as some variable staining outside the neuropil. String-like structures in e — g are autofluorescent trachea. We observed strong FFN labelling of TH Rescue brains in a dense field of dopamine nerve terminals belonging to the MB-MV1 neurons that project to the mushroom bodies and have recently been implicated in associative learning 26 , 27 Fig. FFN also labelled presynaptic dopamine terminals in the suboesophageal ganglion, antennal lobes, mushroom bodies Fig. Therefore, by using FFN to label TH Rescue brains, we can specifically image dopamine terminals to examine the neurochemical mechanisms that regulate the content of dopamine vesicles in response to both exocytic and non-exocytic releasing stimuli. To study the kinetics of stimulated release in presynaptic dopamine nerve terminals, we first measured exocytic vesicle release from FFNlabelled dopamine terminals in TH Rescue brains. The initial lag before destaining was mainly attributable to the time needed for the KCl to reach the imaging chamber and for solution exchange Supplementary Fig. The sparse punctate staining resistant to KCl-depolarization may be due to the heterogeneous release properties of monoaminergic nerve terminals, as reported recently in mouse brain slices Projected image stacks of the protocerebral neuropil before left and after center treatments and kinetics of fluorescence decay in MB-MV1 region right from representative experiments. Thus, FFN has permitted us to monitor for the first time the dynamics of neurotransmitter content within intact dopaminergic vesicles in an ex vivo whole-brain preparation. We hypothesized that KCl, chloroquine and amphetamine operate through distinct mechanisms, and explored these mechanisms with the recently developed in vivo pH sensor dVMAT-pHluorin 18 , as described below. We characterized a genetically encoded fluorescent reporter of intraluminal pH to examine changes in monoamine vesicle pH. Both electrical stimulation Supplementary Fig. Under basal conditions, the percentage of dVMAT-pHluorin on the cell surface in our ex vivo whole fly brain preparation We expressed the dVMAT-pHluorin biosensor in presynaptic dopamine nerve terminals to directly monitor amphetamine-induced pH changes in dopamine synaptic vesicles in a whole brain for the first time. This amphetamine-induced rise in vesicle pH was sustained during continuous application of the drug by bath superfusion Supplementary Fig. Comparison with the WT genetic background b shows the vast shift in amphetamine potency due to the absence of functional dDAT in dDAT fmn mutant brains. Drugs were sequentially applied to the brain preparation by bath superfusion. Specifically, we asked whether passive diffusion of amphetamines across the plasma membrane supplies sufficient intracellular amphetamine to produce vesicular alkalization or whether it must be imported by the concentrative transporter dDAT. Methamphetamine-induced vesicle alkalization was also blocked in the dDAT null mutant background Supplementary Fig. This is consistent with chloroquine's ability to lipophilically diffuse across membranes and also demonstrates that the synaptic vesicles in dDAT null brains are capable of intraluminal alkalization. Next, we used a pharmacological strategy to block dVMAT to determine whether its function at the vesicle membrane is necessary for amphetamine-induced vesicle alkalization. The experiments above clearly demonstrated that amphetamines cause vesicle alkalization in dopamine terminals in an ex vivo whole-brain preparation. At low micromolar concentrations of amphetamines, this alkalization requires concentrative transporters at both the plasma membrane DAT and the synaptic vesicle membrane VMAT. We therefore tested whether proven VMAT substrates also alkalize vesicles. Critically, the property shared by these diverse compounds is their ability to be transported by VMAT. This proposed antiport mechanism for substrate-induced vesicular alkalization is not dependent on vesicle exocytosis. An alternative explanation for dVMAT-pHluorin brightening could be that vesicle exocytosis shifts the sensor from the acidic vesicle lumen to the neutral extracellular milieu. Given the relatively fast kinetics of exocytosis, images were acquired at higher frequency to detect rapid vesicular pH changes. Brief pressure ejection of KCl led to a prolonged, intense pH change Fig. We also used the same genetic background of TeTxLC co-expression with dVMAT-pHluorin to construct a vesicle intraluminal pH calibration curve using a cocktail of ionophores across a broad pH range see Methods ; the TeTxLC was required to avoid the potential confound of vesicle exocytosis during calibration. All traces show single-plane fluorescence intensity measured at ms intervals, integrated over the MB-MV1 region, and normalized to initial values. Although there is consensus that amphetamines produce behavioural effects by raising extracellular dopamine levels, diverse and often contradictory inferences have been drawn to explain the molecular basis of this effect. In order to reveal amphetamine's actions at the synaptic vesicle level, we have combined a number of novel, complementary genetic, optical and pharmacological approaches to address these questions. These data are consistent with work by Dwoskin and colleagues who have developed inhibitors of methamphetamine behavioural actions using lobeline analogues. During their structure-driven pre-clinical studies, this group recognized that the drugs shared the common property of being VMAT blockers Selectivity for VMAT2 over DAT is especially important for discriminating between these transporters as sites of action for amphetamines, which act at both. If this were the case, then VMAT inhibitors would mimic or enhance the behavioural effects of amphetamines. We used a fly model system to elucidate the mechanism of amphetamines' actions at synaptic vesicles in vivo. We recently introduced FFNs to enable rapid imaging of monoamine storage and release dynamics in vertebrate brain slice 30 , To focus specifically on dopaminergic terminals, we used flies genetically engineered to express dVMAT only in TH-expressing dopamine neurons. Thus, this probe serves as a sensitive and selective surrogate marker for dopamine content in small synaptic and large dense core vesicles While similar kinetics of amphetamine-induced destaining of previous generation FFN molecules loaded into brain slices has been shown 51 , this is the first report of amphetamine-induced dopamine vesicle content release in whole brain. Since vesicular pH plays an important role in storage and release of vesicle contents, we used the recently developed vesicular pH biosensor, dVMAT-pHluorin, as a tool to elucidate amphetamines' effects on intraluminal pH within intact vesicles in our whole-brain preparation. This approach differs from earlier uses of pHluorin biosensors to monitor vesicle dynamics during exo- and endocytosis 31 , Lipophilic weak bases like chloroquine cause vesicle alkalization and readily redistribute vesicle contents as we showed in whole brain with FFN However, two lines of evidence demonstrate that, at relevant concentrations, amphetamines do not work by the same mechanisms as chloroquine. The requirement for functional transporters at both the plasma membrane and the vesicular membrane for amphetamine action challenges the common assumption that lipophilic diffusion alone can deliver enough amphetamine to vesicles to alkalize vesicles, even at high micromolar concentrations of the drug. Altogether, these data provide the most direct evidence to date that the amphetamines, like dopamine and FFN, are bona fide substrates of VMAT and not merely inhibitors. Measurements of synaptic vesicle pH are typically made in cells or in isolated vesicles, and to our knowledge this study represents the first attempt to measure the intraluminal pH of synaptic vesicles in a whole living brain. Ionic manipulations used for calibrating pH measurements can lead to exocytosis, confounding interpretation of the data. This value is substantially more acidic than reported by Sturman et al. Our data lead to a model for how pharmacologically relevant concentrations of amphetamines increase extracellular dopamine: 1 DAT imports and concentrates amphetamines in the cytoplasm. Vesicle deacidification alters the protonation state of luminal dopamine, which might be sufficient to increase its diffusion across the membrane. Whether VMAT itself might be a route of dopamine release from vesicles 11 , 65 requires further study. Our previous work demonstrated that phosphorylation of DAT is essential for dopamine efflux 66 and for locomotor behaviour induced by amphetamine but not for the actions of methylphenidate, a competitive non-substrate inhibitor of DAT 20 , These results are consistent with the inference from our rodent behavioural data that competitive inhibition at DAT by amphetamines is not sufficient to produce behavioural effects at the concentrations tested. Because amphetamines are also substrates of norepinephrine transporter and serotonin transporter, and VMAT is present in adrenergic and serotonergic neurons 6 , the tandem actions of plasma membrane transporters and VMAT are likely important for amphetamine-induced release of other monoamines as well. Furthermore, our results demonstrate the first application of a novel experimental system that can be used to develop important new insights into the physiology of intact monoaminergic vesicles. This allowed us to achieve improved probe expression in the resulting homozygous fly strain compared with the initial description of the probe Drug treatments. In some experiments, drugs were also applied by air pressure ejection 0. To test effects on vesicular pH, brains were incubated with 0. An isolated, ex vivo whole adult fly brain preparation was obtained by rapid removal and microdissection of the brain from decapitated flies as previously described A significant advantage of this preparation is that following removal of head cuticle and connective tissues, drugs are applied directly to brain tissue at known concentrations. This whole-brain preparation was imaged with continuous flow on an Ultima multiphoton laser scanning microscope Prairie Technologies Bruker Corp. Edwards and have been previously characterized by Adam et al. The filtres were rapidly washed twice with 1. Assays were performed with conditions in duplicate or triplicate for each sample. Data in each assay were normalized to the mean control maximal uptake level within the respective assay without background subtraction, and the data from three separate experiments were pooled and analysed using GraphPad Prism version 5. Immunolabeling was performed in PBS containing 0. For stimulated release experiments, third instar larvae were prepared in chilled calcium-free HL3. To prevent exocytic release of vesicles in response to ionophore treatment, these experiments were performed in flies co-expressing tetanus toxin light chain in the same dopamine terminals. To determine the fraction of dVMAT-pHluorin expressed on the cell surface, we used previously described methods 31 , Using the brief acid wash method, we found that the percentage of dVMAT-pHluorin on the cell surface under basal conditions was This experimental system affords facile manipulation of drug concentrations. The timing by which drug solutions equilibrated in the imaging chamber was determined by flowing an auto-fluorescent green dye dissolved in PBS buffer dilution under conditions identical to those experimentally used to deliver drugs to fly brains. Data acquisition was performed with Prairie View software version 4. The dynamic range of dVMAT-pHluorin fluorescence intensity was calculated as a ratio of peak fluorescence intensity to initial fluorescence in response to KCl stimulation. All data were graphed using GraphPad Prism. Two hundred flies , females:males of the respective genotype were placed in bottles filled with standard medium and permitted to lay eggs with experiments commencing on the fourth day of egg-laying. Food coloring was added to the yeast paste to ascertain whether the larvae fed on the provided paste. Each dish containing a set of 1—3 larvae was placed on a cool-operated, evenly illuminated fluorescent light box positioned underneath a video camera Dalsa PTM60, Teledyne, Dalsa, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada , which captured a high-contrast video image of larval profiles over a featureless background. We used the Multi-Worm Tracker and Choreography software packages open source availability to track and quantify larval movement. The coefficient of determination R 2 corresponded to fitting experimentally-derived FFN destaining curves to a one phase exponential decay preceded by a plateau phase; all curve fittings were plotted using GraphPad Prism. IC 50 values were computed using a nonlinear, least-squares regression analysis using GraphPad Prism. Affinities K i values were calculated using the Cheng—Prusoff equation How to cite this article: Freyberg, Z. Mechanisms of amphetamine action illuminated through optical monitoring of dopamine synaptic vesicles in Drosophila brain. Markiavelli, Stephen Rayport and Leslie Vosshall for helpful discussion and comments on the manuscript as well as to Maryann Carrigan and Patty Ballerstadt for administrative assistance J. We also gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Dawn French-Evans in conducting both catalepsy and locomotor activity studies in mice and of Eve Vagg for assistance with figures. This work was financially supported by K08 DA Z. Gerstner, Jr, Scholars Program Z. Sames , G. Mathers Charitable Foundation D. Kirschstein T32 ES C. Kirschstein GM A. Author contributions Z. This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Nat Commun. Find articles by Zachary Freyberg. Find articles by Mark S Sonders. Find articles by Jenny I Aguilar. Find articles by Takato Hiranita. Find articles by Caline S Karam. Find articles by Jorge Flores. Find articles by Andrea B Pizzo. Find articles by Yuchao Zhang. Find articles by Zachary J Farino. Find articles by Audrey Chen. Find articles by Ciara A Martin. Find articles by Theresa A Kopajtic. Find articles by Hao Fei. Find articles by Gang Hu. Find articles by Yi-Ying Lin. Find articles by Eugene V Mosharov. Find articles by Brian D McCabe. Find articles by Robin Freyberg. Find articles by Kandatege Wimalasena. Find articles by Ling-Wei Hsin. Find articles by Dalibor Sames. Find articles by David E Krantz. Find articles by Jonathan L Katz. Find articles by David Sulzer. Find articles by Jonathan A Javitch. Received Feb 2; Accepted Jan 6; Collection date All Rights Reserved. Open in a new tab. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

Molecular Analysis of Serotonin Packaging into Secretory Vesicles

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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Tel: E-mail: Golmakanie mums. Studies over the past two decades have shown that various personality traits of substance-dependent men measure differently than compared to normal individuals. However fewer studies have addressed the role of identity as an influential factor in the onset and continuation of drug dependency. The objective of this study was to compare the Big Five personality factors and identity styles in methamphetamine dependent women and non-user group. They were compared with 48 non-dependent women who were matched in terms of age, education, marital status, and occupation. Data was analyzed with t student test. Results found that methamphetamine dependent woman had significantly higher levels of neuroticism and lower levels of conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness to experience compared to normative sample of female respondents. This is while non-user women had a significantly higher mean in normative identity style. Identity styles along with personality traits can be a key role in drug use in women in this study. Therefore, enhancing understanding about the role of identity can be helpful in treatment programs especially in harm reduction approaches. Keywords: identity styles, methamphetamine, personality traits, adult female respondents. In recent years, the prevalence of drug abuse has increased in both men and women. Based on research reports, the pace of increase among women is significantly higher than men. Studies show that Iran has the highest rate of opium use in the world Mehrjerdi et al. Co-use of heroin with methamphetamine MA is a new epidemic health concern among Iranian female drug users. Personality is made up of a combination of distinguishing characteristics called traits. Neuroticism is the tendency to experience anxiety, stress, hostility, impulsivity, shyness, irrational thought, depression and low self-esteem. Extraversion is the tendency to be positive, assertive, dynamic, kind, and sociable. Openness to experience is the tendency to be curious, interested in arts, intellectual, flexible, creative, and innovative. Agreeableness is the tendency to be forgiving, kind, generous, trusting, sympathetic, obedient, devoted, and loyal. Erikson hypothesized that identity is the conscious sense of self which is made up of values, beliefs, and goals. In other words, Erikson believed that identity is the establishment of balance between oneself and others Tsang et al. Most research in the field of identity carried out in past decades was based on the Marcia model. They usually show little flexibility in dealing with life difficulties. Individuals with informational processing style make decisions based on reasoning and thought in any situation. In the present study, the personality traits and identity styles of methamphetamine dependent women were compared with those of non-using women, in order to acquire a better understanding of this dark part of the personality. Women who use stimulant drugs are in danger of displaying other risky behaviors due to the effect of this type of substance on their psychological condition and behavior. We hypothesized that identity styles are different in MA user women and relation between identity and certain personality traits can be a moderator for use of substance. Therefore, knowing more about the relation of identity and personality profile can be helpful in treatment programs especially in harm reduction approaches in MA user women. Aim of the study to compare the identity style beside the personality factors in methamphetamine dependents women and non user group to found better understanding about position of identity in etiology of addiction. Ninety six female respondents were enrolled in the study, of which 48 were MA dependent and 48 non-users the control group. These women referred from their family physicians or social workers in north khorasan province for detoxification and rehabilitation of methamphetamine dependency. Participants admitted in two residential drug rehabilitation center in bojnurd and shirvan city in north khorasan province, northeastern of Iran. Inclusion criteria for substance-dependent women includes: Diagnosis of methamphetamine dependency according to DSM IV TR, lapse of at least two weeks from residence in drug rehabilitation center, absence of methamphetamine psychosis based on a psychiatric interview, consent for taking part in the study, and having at least an elementary level of education. The control group was made up of individuals introduced by participating patients. Patients were asked to introduce someone from their relatives, friends, or an acquaintance that were similar to themselves in terms of age, marital status, education, being employed or unemployed and economic status, but were not using any substance. Subjects matched one by one. In case of consent, the researcher approached the respondent. After carrying out a routine urine test for drug dependency and obtaining a negative result, the individual filled out the questionnaires. Costa and McCrae reported an alpha coefficient of 0. The internal consistency of this questionnaire ranges from 0. It includes 40 items: 11 items for informational style, 9 items for normative style, 10 items for diffuse-avoidant style, and 10 items for commitment. Regarding this inventory, Crosby et al. The Persian version was tested by Aghajani, who reported a reliability of 0. The statistical methods used in this study were the Independent T-test for comparing two means and Chi-squared tests for comparing qualitative variables in the two groups. In this study SPSS 16 software was used for data analysis and the significance level was 0. This research approved by Regional University of medical sciences Ethics committee. All participants provided written consent stating their willingness to participate in this study. The mean age of the substance dependent group was The educational status of the respective samples is presented in Table 1. The mean scores of NEO big five personality factors in the two groups are presented in Table 2. Openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness was significantly higher in the non-user group. In this study, we compared the Big Five personality factors and identity styles in MA abuser women and non-user group. Results obtained indicate that out of the Big Five personality factors, mean neuroticism in MA user women is significantly higher than in non user group. However, MA user women obtained significantly lower scores in the dimensions of openness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness compared to non-user women. Furthermore, the non-user women also had a significantly higher mean in normative orientations. Our finding concerning the positive correlation between the traits high Neuroticism, Low Agreeableness and low Conscientiousness in MA user are consistent with the results of Anderson et al. However, in these studies, type of substance was not considered as a variable. Neuroticism refers to the tendency to experience negative emotions such as fear, sadness, impulsivity, and vulnerability to pressure De Fruyt et al. Our results showed that MA user had no significant differences in Extraversion as compared to non user group. Our finding was consistent with results of Satin et al and Terraacciano et al. Results in Norwegians study showed high Neuroticism, low Conscientiousness, low Extraversion and Low Agreeableness in opium users. In this research we did not study the psychotic disorders resulting from the use of MA and no significant difference in extraversion in this group may be related to this issue. Although there does not seem to be supporting evidence for this hypothesis. These results were consistent with results of research carried out by Nurmi et al. The case group in our research rely on a type of substance in itself indicative of severe involvement. Their momentary emotions and feelings play a key role in their decision making. The use of drugs with the incentive to eliminate unpleasant feelings is the most obvious sign of this type of orientation in individuals with drug addiction. It can be said that addicted individuals in this research have obvious differences in their personality traits and identity styles compared to the non user group. This is consistent with other studies carried out in this field. Considerable differences between the drug user group and the non user group in some of their personality traits and choice of identity styles suggests further research in this field. It seems necessary to assess other variables such as irrational beliefs, defense mechanisms, and maladaptive schemas in addicted and normal individuals besides assessing their identity style and we suggest to other researcher to compare identity styles beside of these variable in drug users. This way we can find the missing pieces to the puzzle of addictive behaviors in this group of patients. It should be noted that this study had substantial limitations. One of the most important limitations was the small sample size which was related to low access to MA user women and their lack of cooperation for taking part in the study. In addition, the admittance of these patients in addiction rehabilitation residential centers might have affected their responses to the questionnaires, compared to the control group who were not in such conditions. This issue was of course inevitable. We would like to thank all people for their dedicated effort to complete data collection for the project. Our Thanks also go to the North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, depoty of research for approve and support this project. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Glob J Health Sci. Find articles by Seyed Kaveh Hojjat. Find articles by Ebrahim Golmakani. Find articles by Mohammad Hossein Bayazi. Find articles by Razieh Mortazavi. Bojnurd, Iran. Find articles by Mina Norozi Khalili. Find articles by Arash Akaberi. Educational status of samples in two groups. Values are numbers percentages. Open in a new tab. Comparison of mean scores of identity styles in MA abuser women and non-abuser group. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

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