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Methamphetamine use stimulates the brain and central nervous system, and can result in a variety of adverse outcomes. The effect that methamphetamine has on an individual depends on a number of factors. These include:. There are a variety of physical health risks associated with methamphetamine use. Many of these risks are very serious, and can result in severe short- and long-term consequences for the user. The effects of methamphetamine are the same regardless of which form e. However, crystal methamphetamine ice tends to be more potent and purer than other forms. As a result, the effects of ice are both more likely to occur and likely to be more intense than when other forms of methamphetamine are used. Overdoses can involve:. If methamphetamine is used regularly for an extended period of time, long-term physical effects can include:. The way in which methamphetamine is used can further impact on the health of the user. For instance:. For more information about the effects of methamphetamine, see FAQs What are the effects of methamphetamine use? What are the physical health risks of methamphetamine use? Short-term effects The short-term physical effects of using methamphetamine include: increased or irregular heart rate palpitations chest pains breathing faster or irregularly loss of appetite high blood pressure dilated pupils increased perspiration feeling restless, shaky, or moving more quickly sleeplessness jaw clenching or teeth grinding headaches dizziness pale complexion elevated body temperature nausea, vomiting or diarrhoea seizures. Overdoses can involve: racing heart seizures passing out stroke heart attack death. Long-term effects If methamphetamine is used regularly for an extended period of time, long-term physical effects can include: weakened immune system stroke heart infection lung disease kidney and liver damage poor dental health poor dietary intake and extreme weight loss restless sleep regular colds and flu muscle stiffness skin lesions and infections. For instance: Snorting methamphetamine can lead to nosebleeds, sinus problems, and damage to the inside of the nose. Injecting methamphetamine with unsterile or shared equipment increases the risk of contracting blood borne viruses HIV, hepatitis B and C , blood poisoning septicaemia , tetanus, or skin abscesses. Injecting methamphetamine can also result in blocked blood vessels, leading to inflamed blood vessels, abscesses, and serious damage to the liver, heart, or kidneys. Source: Adapted from DrugInfo

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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. This study explored the relationship among Asian values, depressive symptoms, perceived peer substance use, coping strategies, and substance use among Asian American college women. Three path analyses examining illicit drugs, alcohol use, and binge drinking indicated that perceived peer use was the most robust predictor of substance use. Depressive symptoms were positively associated with illicit drug use and alcohol consumption but were not related to binge drinking. Asian values and coping strategies were not predictive of substance use. Additional analysis revealed that avoidant coping was a strong predictor of depressive symptoms. Keywords: alcohol use, Asian American Women, depressive symptoms, enculturation and coping strategies, peer use, substance use. The model minority myth or stereotype of Asian Americans, and Asian American women in particular, may be a potential contributor of this lack of research focus. The model minority myth i. The few studies that have examined substance abuse and mental health problems among Asian American women have focused on Asian American adolescents. Subsequently, relatively little is known about the mental health and substance use and abuse of Asian American women. Although much of the extant substance use literature on college women focuses on White women, this study aims to contribute to the sparse body of literature on Asian American women and their substance use and mental health problems by elucidating the risk and protective factors of substance use and abuse among this population. Although marijuana use frequently begins in middle and secondary school, one-third of the 14, students in the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study began using substances in college and used marijuana more frequently during this period Wechsler et al. Wechsler et al. Frequent binge drinking is highly problematic because it is associated with an increased likelihood of using other substances, such as marijuana, cocaine, and other drugs Vickers et al. For this study, depressive symptoms, perceived peer use, and coping strategies were selected for investigation because these are areas where clinicians may target interventions to decrease substance use Vickers el al. Depression is one of many factors that might contribute to the vulnerability of Asian American women to substance abuse. Asian American women may be particularly vulnerable given that those between 15 and 25 have disproportionately high rates of depression and suicidal ideation Commonwealth Fund Survey of the Health of Adolescent Girls, Kearney, Draper, and Baron examined 1, college students from 40 universities across America and found that Asian American students had the highest levels of psychological distress across all ethnic groups. In addition, Gutierres and Van Puymbroeck believed that women who experience depression may use substances to cope with psychological distress related to and resulting from her depression. Supporting this notion, Franko et al. In a similar investigation of 4, Asian American high school students, Otsuki found that depression was significantly related to alcohol use. Although an increasing body of research has begun to indicate a relationship between depression and substance use among Asian American female adolescents, it is relatively unknown whether a similar relationship exists among Asian American college women. Kim et al. Liu and Iwamoto also found that perceived peer use was a robust predictor of substance use among Asian American men. Although perceived peer use was found to be strongly related to substance use among Asian American men, it is unclear from the literature whether peer association and substance use holds true for Asian American women. Cultural values have emerged as protective factors against substance use in previous studies Unger et al. These indigenous Asian values include collectivism, filial piety i. Supporting this notion, Unger et al. Therefore, endorsing cultural values might deter individuals from using substances. Coping strategy is an important variable to investigate because it is a modifiable factor that can be incorporated into prevention programs. However, a scant number of empirical investigations exist in the area of coping strategies and substance use among Asian Americans. Furthermore, previous findings have suggested that young women who use alcohol and other substances as a form of coping are at increased risk for substance abuse and mental health problems Franko et al. Previous research in the area of substance abuse among college students may have overlooked Asian Americans due to misconceptions of this ethnic group as a model minority with little risk for depression and substance abuse. However, research has demonstrated that Asian Americans, and Asian American women in particular, are also vulnerable to substance abuse and mental health problems Franko et al. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to build on prior research that has identified protective and risk factors of substance use among Asian American college students. Specifically, this study examines the relationship between coping strategies, Asian values, depressive symptoms, perceived peer use, and substance use among Asian American college women. Coping strategies i. Moreover, because depression is high among this population Commonwealth Fund Survey of the Health of Adolescent Girls, , it is of utmost importance to explore to the association between depressive symptoms and substance use. We hypothesize a substance use path model for Asian American college women that elucidate these relationships Figure 1. Specifically, using framework presented in Figure 1 , three separate path analysis will be performed: illicit drug use i. Based on previous literature Allen et al. In other words, we hypothesize that Asian American women are more likely to use substances if their peers also used substances, and that individuals who report more depressive symptoms and use avoidant coping strategies may attempt to engage in substance use to self-medicate and to forget about their problems. Individuals with higher endorsement of Asian values will be less likely to engage in substance use due to their collective-orientation value-system. Adhering to traditional Asian values of family recognition and conformity to social norms will therefore likely deter these individuals from engaging in substance use, thus serving as a protective factor. Individuals who use more active coping styles will also be less likely to use substances due to their tendency to utilize cognitive tools in problem solving Sullivan et al. Second, we hypothesize that there will be a link between depressive symptoms, coping styles, and perceived peer use. That is, individuals who use avoidant coping will be more likely to report depressive symptoms whereas those who use active coping strategies will be less likely to report depressive signs. Furthermore, we predict that individuals who report higher depressive symptoms may self-select in peer groups that use substance. To obtain the AVS-R score, all 25 items are summed together and divided by Higher scores indicate greater adherence to Asian cultural values. The CES-D is a widely used measure of depressive symptomatology. Higher scores on this instrument indicate greater depressive symptoms. This instrument is intended to assess how individuals cope with stressful events and consists of 14 subscales of coping. The 14 subscales of coping include: active coping, planning, positive reframing, acceptance, humor, religion, using emotional support, using instrumental support, self-distraction, denial, venting, substance use, behavioral disengagement, and self-blame. Both research studies revealed a two-component model of coping: Cope-Direct and Cope-Indirect. We performed a principle axis factor analysis using a direct oblimin rotation on the 28 items in the Brief Cope because we expected that the factors might be correlated. Inspection of the eigenvalues greater than one, scree plot Cattell, , and interpretability of items loading on specific factors revealed that a two-factor model appeared to fit the data the best. Items that loaded less than. The two coping items that included substance use were also removed from the analysis because of the risk of a spurious relationship with the substance use measures. From this procedure, 9 items were eliminated, resulting in 19 items total. These findings supported the use of a two-factor model: active coping 13 items i. This revised measure coping is both theoretically simpler and more psychometrically sound than the revision proposed by Carver The internal consistency coefficients for active coping and avoidant coping were. After institutional review board approval was obtained, participants were recruited from undergraduate classes Biology, Chemistry, Statistics, Asian American Psychology, and Engineering at a large West Coast University. Data were collected from all of the students in the classes; however, only Asian American women were included in this current study. All participants completed the surveys voluntarily and were not given compensation for their participation. The participants took between 15 and 35 minutes to complete the survey packet. Ten participants had incomplete data i. Among the women in our sample, Of these participants, It should be noted that the average score on the CES-D was However, caution should be warranted in interpreting these resutls because the CES-D was not normed on Asian Americans. The means, standard deviations, ranges, zero-order correlations, and internal consistency estimates for all the variables are reported in Table 1. Path analysis was performed using the structural equation modeling software M plus version 4. Data screening was performed prior to conducting the path analysis. Missing values were handled using full maximum likelihood procedures to estimate parameters. Weighted Least Squares Estimator was used given that this type of estimation can handle categorical variables, as well as variables that have unequal variance Garson, We subsequently tested the measurement model. In the measurement model, peer use and illicit drug use were the only latent constructs. Accordingly, the relationship between the peer use item parcels e. The four observed indicators that formed the latent factor of illicit drug use were as follows: marijuana use, cocaine use, and other substances i. Weight least squares estimation illicit drug use path model of substance use for Asian American college women. A latent factor of illicit drug use was created using the observed substance use measures: cocaine, marijuana, and other illicit drug use. The rationale for creating a latent factor was because of the moderate correlations between the observed measures, as well as low frequency of substance use, thus identifying a latent factor of general illicit drug use was of greater interest. In addition, the use of multiple measures also reduces measurement error Kline, These results suggest that individuals who experience higher levels of depressive symptoms and report that their peers use substances were found to be at elevated risk for illicit drug use. Weight least squares estimation binge drinking path model of substance use for Asian American college women. Forty-seven percent of the variance in alcohol use was explained by the predictors in the model. Weight least squares estimation alcohol use path model of substance use for Asian American college women. Within the model of substance use, we were also interested in examining the predictors of depressive symptomatology. In other words, individuals who use avoidant coping may also be experiencing depressive symptoms. Finally, Asian values were negatively associated with avoidant coping strategies and positively related to active coping. In effect, individuals with higher adherence to Asian values tended to use more active coping strategies and less avoidant coping strategies. The current study addressed the gaps in research on substance use among Asian Americans by identifying risk factors for substance use and depressive symptoms among Asian American college women. Through a series of path analyses, we revealed how depressive symptoms and perceived peer substance use may help to explain substance use patterns among Asian American college women. Our findings partially supported our model of substance use. As hypothesized, perceived peer use and depressive symptoms predicted illicit drug use. Perceived peer substance use was the most robust predictor of participant substance use in all three path models, which is consistent with previous studies Allen et al. In other words, participants in this sample were significantly more likely to report illicit drug use and consume alcohol when they reported that their peers used substances. Specifically, it may be the social norms, attitudes, and substance use behaviors established within the friendship that reinforce the normalcy of their substance use and abuse Simons-Morton, In addition, when individuals associate with peers who use substances, the availability of substances might become more available, increasing the likelihood of using. Our hypothesis that individuals who report depressive symptoms and use avoidant coping would be positively associated to perceived peer use was not supported. It could be that regardless of whether an individual uses avoidant coping strategies or is experiencing depressive symptoms, these coping styles will not increase the likelihood of associating with peers who use substances or vice versa. Depressive symptoms were found to be directly related to illicit drug use and alcohol consumption but not to binge drinking. These findings are consistent with previous studies linking depression with substance use among women Franko et al. This finding has significant clinical implications given that Asian American women between the ages of 18 to 24 have been found to have the highest rates of depression Commonwealth Fund Survey for Girls, This population may then be at an increased risk for substance abuse. One possible explanation is that individuals who report high depressive symptomatology may use illicit drugs and alcohol as a form of dealing with their negative mood, placing these women at heightened susceptibility to experimenting with substances Otuski, Specifically, illicit drugs and alcohol might provide them with a temporary outlet to alleviate depressive symptomatology. Although a relationship between these two variables was found, the directionality of the relationship is speculative at best because this study was cross-sectional, thus caution is warranted in interpreting these results. Contrary to our hypothesis, no relationship was found between depressive symptoms and binge drinking. For example, individuals might be more inclined to binge drink when they are in the presence of their peers, specifically when they perceive that their peers use. Avoidant coping was the only predictor of depressive symptoms among participants. One possible explanation for this finding is that a bidirectional relationship exists between avoidant coping and depressive symptoms. Specifically, individuals experiencing depressive symptoms are also attempting to deal with their symptoms by engaging in coping strategies, such as using distracting behaviors or denial strategies. Conversely, when individuals use avoidant coping such as self-blame or self-criticism, these strategies might contribute to decreased self-worth, increasing reported depressive symptomatology. Contrary to our hypothesis, Asian values measured using the AVS did not serve as protective factors against illicit drug use, alcohol consumption, and binge drinking for the women in the current study. One explanation could be that Asian American women in psychological distress are overwhelmed and turn to peer support networks to alleviate some of this distress. It may be more likely that peers are using substances to cope with distress rather than explicitly using cultural values. These external or behavioral means of coping allow Asian American women to distract themselves rather than focusing internally on their cultural values and worldview. We hypothesized that individuals with active coping styles would be less likely to use substances than those using avoidant coping. In the correlational analysis, there was a relationship between avoidant coping and alcohol consumption; however, in the path analysis, the effects became non-significant. Thus, the results did not support our hypothesis that coping strategies predict substance use. Although some women in previous studies were at greater risk of using substances when they used certain coping strategies Tucker et al. It appears that the women who use substances use them regardless of their coping strategies. In regards to Asian values predicting active and avoidant coping, our hypothesis was supported. The higher AVS adherence the greater active coping strategies were used while individuals who had lower AVS tended to use more avoidant coping strategies. One explanation for why individuals might tend to have greater connection with others and activity seek support could be because active coping items taps into social support i. The current study was limited in several ways. First, the results were cross-sectional and therefore preclude any assumption of causality. Second, the researchers recognize that Asian Americans are a heterogeneous group; therefore, there are possible within-group differences. However, given that we had unequal ethnic group sizes, we were unable to conduct analysis that examined ethnic group differences. Future studies should use large sample sizes of Asians to examine within and between group differences because previous findings have suggested that some Asian ethnic groups have greater substance use than others Otuski, Regional differences in substance use and abuse patterns, coping styles, and Asian value adherence or idiosyncratic characteristics of the current sample should also be considered when interpreting these results. Therefore, caution is warranted in generalizing these findings. Future studies should address different substance use and abuse patterns among specific Asian ethnic groups, as well as examine possible generational status differences in substance use. Findings from this study suggest that contrary to the model minority myth, Asian American women do experience psychological distress such as depression, and that their use of substances, especially alcohol, is an important factor to consider in treatment. In particular, the more likely the peer group is actively engaged in substance use, the more likely the Asian American woman will be as well. It may be that binge drinking is a type of social activity that normalizes excessive drinking. It may be that low enculturation to Asian cultural values also means a low identification to other Asian Americans with high Asian cultural values; instead, the Asian American woman may be associating with peers who have a higher tolerance for substance use and abuse. Clinicians and psychoeducational workshop leaders should emphasize the strength of peer influence in decisions about whether to use substances, describe ways in which individuals can proactively avoid compromising situations where they will not feel compelled to use, and provide coping strategies for resisting peer pressure to use drugs and alcohol. Furthermore, given that active coping may serve as a protective factor of depression and illicit drug use, counseling sessions and workshops could teach or recommend campus resources that teach active coping strategies to implement in response to stress. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Institute of Health. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. J Ethn Subst Abuse. Published in final edited form as: J Ethn Subst Abuse. The publisher's version of this article is available at J Ethn Subst Abuse. Open in a new tab. Alcohol use —. Binge drinking — —. Marijuana use — — —. Cocaine use — — — —. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

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