Scotland: History and Modernity - История и исторические личности курсовая работа

Главная

История и исторические личности
Scotland: History and Modernity

Farmers and monument builders. The foundation of St. Andrew`s University. Mary the Queen of Scots. Political and cultural life after merger of Scotland and England. The Jacobite Rebellions. The main characteristics of Scotland in the modern era.


посмотреть текст работы


скачать работу можно здесь


полная информация о работе


весь список подобных работ


Нужна помощь с учёбой? Наши эксперты готовы помочь!
Нажимая на кнопку, вы соглашаетесь с
политикой обработки персональных данных

Студенты, аспиранты, молодые ученые, использующие базу знаний в своей учебе и работе, будут вам очень благодарны.

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БЕЛАРУСЬ
«Гомельский государственный университет
Кафедра теории и практики английского языка
Курсовая работа 39 страниц, 26 источников
Scotland has always been a land with its own identity, unique culture and rich history. Since the first settlers it has been shaped by many nations, political and cultural events and now it is an incredible and vibrant land, which we are going to introduce. In the first chapter we want to tell about Scotland`s first settlers (Prehistoric Scotland, Scotland before modern humans, hunter-gatherers, farmers and monument builders, one of the first settlements - Skara Brae and so on). The first settlers occupied Scottish territories and founded settlements in spite of scarce soil, extreme weather conditions and heavy-going mountains. During the neolithic period Scotland shares with the Atlantic coast of Europe the tradition of massive stone architecture, of which Skara Brae is a rare domestic example, village about 2500 BC. There is no wood on the island, so the walls of the one-room dwellings are made of stone and the built-in furniture too. There are stone beds and shelves and recessed cupboards, with a hearth in each hut. Nevertheless Scottish territories were available for fishing and farming, because of mild winter. Comfortable geographical location such as lowlands - sheltered from Northern winds by mountains. It has become an important trading route later. Impact of Nordic invasion - it had a direct impact on Scottish lifestyle, settlement organization, local people developed fortification system, armory etc. That way Scottish vernacular settlements embraced Nordic traditions and applied them to the local lifestyle. Many factors such as impact of religion, cultural and social transformations lead to the emerging united nation and a new kingdom foundation. As outcome religious transformations, development of trading, cultural and social development took place and become a trigger for a kingdom future development.
In the second chapter we want to introduce you to The kingdom of Scotland 11th - 16th century (the Wars of Independence, the foundation of St. Andrew`s University and Mary the Queen of Scots). Such events as transformations within the Kingdom, interaction with the neighbouring nations and lands, the wars for independence can be considered as a logical process for a developing kingdom. Whilst participating in wars nation required strong, well-educated leaders and this is one of the primary reasons for foundation of the first universities. The oldest and most famous university of Scotland is St. Andrews, it was founded in 1410 when a charter of incorporation was bestowed upon the Augustinian priory of St Andrews Cathedral. One of the greatest person in these centuries was Mary the Queen of Scots. In 1562 - 1563 she officially admitted the Reformed faith as the state religion of Scotland though a relationship with Rome was not broken. The Queen was continuing the correspondence with the Holy Father and the Roman Catholic mass was being sung at court. Finally the beginning of the rule of Mary the Queen of Scots was distinguished as the relative political stability. It was a very important time when the stable rule of the kingdom was formed. Alongside with cultural development and social transformations it had a direct impact on religion.
The third chapter contains information about Scotland`s nation (John Knox - the leader of the Scottish reformation, James VI and The Union of the Crowns). The Scottish Reformation was Scotland's formal break with the Papacy in 1560, and the events surrounding this. It was part of the wider European Protestant Reformation; and in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the re-establishment of the church along Reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of the Kingdom of France. The Reformation Parliament of 1560, which repudiated the pope's authority, forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith, was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony. The Scottish Reformation decisively shaped the Church of Scotland and, through it, all other Presbyterian churches worldwide. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish reformation. The Union of the Crowns (March 1603) was the accession of James VI, King of Scots, to the throne of England, and the consequential unification of Scotland and England under one monarch. The Union of the Crowns followed the death of James' unmarried and childless first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I of England--the last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. In the end the union of Scotland and England was to be successful but it was never a marriage of equals. James promised that he would return to his ancient kingdom every three years. In the end he came back only once -- in 1617 -- and even then his English councillors pleaded with him to remain in London. Scotland, up to the full parliamentary Union of 1707, may have retained its institutional independence, but it lost control of vital areas of policy, most notably foreign relations, which remained the prerogative of the crown. This meant, in practice, that policy matters were inevitably tied to English rather than Scottish interests.
In the fourth chapter we want to consider political and cultural life after merger of Scotland and England. This period in history can be described as “Scotland being British”. The cultural differences, historical background, religious controversies - these are conditions which made this union between Scotland and England quite specific and complicated. Although Englang became powerful - colonies, strong economy, cultural revival - it affected Scotland in many ways. Cultural, social, economical interactions had a positive impact for the people of Britain.
The fifth chapter describes the modern life of Scotland, its literature and development of tourism. In the early modern era royal patronage supported poetry, prose and drama. In this time the world-famous names were got abroad: Robert Burns, Sir Walter Scott and Arthur Conan Doyle. One of them - Robert Burns - is the best loved Scottish poet, admired not only for his verse and great love-songs, but also for his character, his high spirits.
1.2 Scotland to the 11th century AD
1.2.1 Pre-Roman Scotland to the 1st century AD
In the neolithic period Scotland shares with the Atlantic coast of Europe the tradition of massive stone architecture, of which Skara Brae is a rare domestic example. The isle of Lewis provides a magnificent example of standing stones at Callanish, where the stone circle is in use as a temple of some kind well into the bronze age (until about 1200 BC). Like the rest of the British Isles, the region is subject to successive waves of immigrants from the continent of Europe. The most significant are the Beaker people and the Celts. The first written accounts of Scotland are by the Romans after their invasion of Britain. They list several tribes, of which the Caledonii are the most important. If western Europe is barbaric, then Caledonia is downright primitive. Much of the land is untouched wilderness. The scattered inhabitants lives in tiny villages or isolated farmsteads. The cities are nothing more than fortified centers with populations of a few hundred. Caledonia is inhabited by five different peoples: Picts, Scots, Britons, Angles, and Northmen.
The Picts were the oldest inhabitants of Caledonia, which derived its name from one of their ancient tribes, the Caledonii, who dominated the area when the Romans first arrived. The Picts were a small, dark people with a reputation for magic and secrecy and for defining inheritance exclusively through the mother's line. They were often associated with the ancient brochs (thick towers), menhirs, and stone circles scattered throughout the British isles, though their own legends claim that these structures were in place even before the Picts arrived. Their names (Latin Picti and Gaelic Cruithni both mean the colored or painted people) refered to their habits of painting themselves with woad and extensive tattooing.
With their small size and mysterious ways, the Picts were often confused by others with the Caledonian faerie folk, with whom they had close ties. Though the Picts were once famous for fighting off both the Romans and the Angles, for much of the last century their culture had been dying out, replaced by that of the Scots. Even before the conquest of Kenneth MacAlpin the Picts were ruled by a mixed Scottish-Pictish aristocracy which came to dominate their lands at the beginning of the century.
The southern Picts have largely been assimilated into Scottish culture, though there are still some independent Pictish communities in the area of Galloway. Many northern Picts in the Highlands retain their ancient customs and language (Pritennic), but they are rapidly being pushed into the least desirable lands by Scottish immigrants.
scotland england cultural political
The Scots were actually recent arrivals, having migrated from northern Ireland during the fourth through sixth centuries. Their name is also reflective of their origins: Scoti is a Gaelic word for raider or predator. The Scots were viking long before the Norse took up the habit, raiding and settling in the islands and peninsulas of south-west Caledonia. Eventually, however, they settled down and founded the kingdom of Dal Riada, centered on the Argyll peninsula with its capital at Dunadd. The Scots fought numerous wars with their Pictish neighbors, instigating the formation of a united Pictish kingdom, after which the two nations took turns conquering and being conquered by each other.
In 834 Kenneth MacAlpin, the son of a Scottish king and Pictish princess, became king of Dal Riada and claimed lordship over both Scots and Picts. Fifteen years later the last Pictish resistance was eliminated when Kenneth invited their leaders to a feast at Scone. In the middle of the feast, the Scots removed the pegs in the Picts' chairs, which had been loosened beforehand, allowing the Scots to slay the Picts in the ensuing confusion. The Stone of Destiny was subsequently moved from Dunadd to Scone, signaling the foundation of the new united kingdom of Alban.
As for Scottish culture, we should forget everything we think we have ever learned about it, most of which was invented from whole cloth by 19th century romantics. At this point in time there are no kilts or tartans. There are no clans, just tribes and families.
The "Mac" found in Scottish names still has its original meaning: "son of". Music is a national pastime, but bagpipes are played only for the great lords - the common people don't get to hear them. As you might guess from their name, the Scots have a reputation as a wild and aggressive people. Feuds and violence were common; the vast majority of Scottish rulers died in battle or were murdered. Like their Irish brothers, the Scots speak Gaelic, though it's already taking on a distinctive Scottish dialect.
The Angles (English) arrived in Caledonia soon after the Scots, migrating from Germany by way of southern Britain. They rapidly conquered the former Pictish and British lands in Lothian and Bernicia, forming new kingdoms which would eventually unite into the English kingdom of Northumbria. They spoke a distinctive dialect of Anglo-Saxon. Originally Northumbria was the dominant English kingdom, but later lost this position to Mercia and, more recently, Wessex. The Angles were ruled by a typical warrior aristocracy. The king was supported by a group of warrior thegns, from whom he selected ealdormen to administer districts of his lands. However, like other German tribes, the Anglo-Saxons were notorious both for their elaborate legal codes, including the practices of weregild and trial by oath or ordeal, and for democratic institutions known as moots, popular assemblies which had judicial and legislative powers. English kings had well-defined rights and powers, a custom which the Celts often laughed at. All kings have to keep their people content lest they rose up in arms (a tradition the Scots were always willing to uphold), but only Anglo-Saxon kings had to suffer commoners quoting "laws" at them [3, p. 13 - 17].
1.2.5 The Vikings and the British Isles: 9th - 10th century AD
The coasts of the British isles are now dotted with monasteries, not yet rich by the standards of medieval monasticism but with sufficient wealth to attract Viking marauders. One of the most famous islands, Iona, was raided three times in a decade (in 795, 802 and 805). Even monasteries which seem secure, pleasantly sited on inland rivers, fell victim to Viking longships rowing upstream. But gradually, during the 9th century, the raiders settled. Soon all the Scottish islands and the Isle of Man were in Viking hands, and the intruders were even seizing territory on the mainland of both Britain and Ireland. In 838 Norwegians capture Dublin and established a Norse kingdom in Ireland. From 865 the Danes settled in eastern England. At this time the territory securely in the hands of the Scots and Picts extended only from the great rift of Loch Ness down to the firths of Clyde and Forth. North of this central region, the Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands, together with much of the mainland, were in the hands of Vikings from Norway. In the southwest the border region of Strathclyde was often under threat from the Norwegian Vikings of Dublin. In the southeast Lothian was another border region. Until recently part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, it was exposed to the Danish Vikings, whose capital city is York. But at least by now, in the mid-9th century, there was a recognizable Scottish kingdom.
1.2.6 The MacAlpin dynasty: AD 843-1057
The love of early historians for precise turning points has caused the year 843 to be selected as the starting date of the Scottish kingdom. It is said to be the year in which Kenneth MacAlpin, already king of the Scots (since 840), is accepted also as king of the Picts. In reality the merging of the two kingdoms seems to have been a gradual process throughout the 9th century. The significant fact is that Kenneth's male descendants provide kings in Scotland for the next two centuries; and during the early part of that period a separate Pictish kingdom fades from view. The name of Kenneth's father is said to be Alpin. So he and his descendants are known as MacAlpin. An indication of the conscious merging of the Picts and Scots under one rule is the use of Scone as the royal site of the MacAlpin dynasty. Situated in the east of Scotland (by contrast with the western base of the Scots in Dalriada), it has been strongly associated with the Pictish kings. Tradition maintains that as a gesture of unified rule Kenneth MacAlpin brings to Scone the sacred coronation stone, known now as the Stone of Scone or Stone of Destiny. The MacAlpin kings win no territory from the Vikings on their northern borders. But they do significantly extend the boundaries of Scotland in the south. During the MacAlpin dynasty the border regions of Strathclyde and Lothian are firmly established as Scottish. In 945 the English king Edmund I subdues the independent kingdom of Strathclyde and then declares it subject to the king of Scotland; when the last king of Strathclyde dies, in about 1025, the region is merged with the Scottish realm. Similarly the English king Edgar, in 973, accepts Scottish control of Lothian - a state of affairs subsequently emphasized by a resounding Scottish victory over the English at Carham in 1018.
1.2.7 Duncan and Macbeth: AD 1034-1057
The death of Malcolm II in 1034 causes a succession crisis in the MacAlpin dynasty and a civil war in Scotland. He has only a daughter, Bethoc, whose son Duncan succeeds to the throne. But Duncan is challenged by Macbeth, also descended in the female line from the royal family. Contrary to Shakespeare's version of the story, Duncan is a young man - probably younger than Macbeth - and Macbeth may have an equally good claim to the throne (there is no precedent in the dynasty for inheritance through a female line). Nor does Macbeth murder Duncan in his bed; he kills him in battle near Elgin in 1040. Macbeth reigns seventeen years as the king of Scotland (or king of Scots, in the more authentic phrase), and on the whole he rules well. Indeed the kingdom is calm enough for him to go on pilgrimage in 1050 to Rome, where he is said to have demonstrated his status by 'scattering money like seed' [4]. Duncan's son, Malcolm, eventually rises against Macbeth and kills him, in a battle at Lumphanan in 1057. Both men are members of the MacAlpin dynasty, and the fact that Macbeth is buried in the holy island of Iona suggests that his contemporaries do not consider him a usurper. Macbeth is immediately succeeded by his stepson, Lulach. But Malcolm kills him too, in an ambush in 1058, before himself being crowned at Scone.
2. The kingdom of Scotland in the 11th - 16th century
The Scottish kingdom: AD 1058-1286 - the Scottish crown remains in the family of Malcolm III for more than two centuries. During this time Scotland becomes more prosperous and more civilized, with the founding of great monasteries in the southern parts of the country. Meanwhile the north is gradually recovered from the Vikings. A turning point is the battle of Largs, in 1263. The king of Norway lands a fleet to assert his long-standing right over the Hebrides and the Isle of Man. He is defeated by the Scottish king, Alexander III. In 1266, at a treaty agreed in Perth, the Norwegians cede the western isles to the Scottish king. Only the Shetlands and Orkneys remain in Norse hands. The most significant theme during these reigns is the relationship of the Scottish kings with their Norman neighbours to the south. It is one of considerable complexity, involving both cooperation and hostility. In several generations the royal families of Scotland and England intermarry. The Scottish kings give land and power to great Norman families. They introduce into Scotland the structures of Norman Feudalism. Yet at the same time the border between the two kingdoms is a region of almost constant warfare. And the relationship between the kings themselves is one of prolonged struggle within a feudal framework. The kings of England like to consider the Scottish kings their vassals, and at certain periods this status is accepted in Scotland - most notably for a while after 1174. In that year William the Lion is captured raiding into Northumberland. After a humiliating journey south, with his feet tied beneath his horse, he is imprisoned by Henry II. He is released only when he does homage to the English king 'for Scotland and all his other lands'. In the long run neither side prevails in this uneasy relationship, until matters are brought to a head by a vacancy on the Scottish throne. In 1286 Alexander III dies. His only heir is Margaret, a young Norwegian princess, the child of his deceased daughter Margaret and of Eric II, king of Norway.
Margaret, the Maid of Norway: AD 1286-1290 - at first the succession of the 4-year-old Margaret to the Scottish throne seems to offer an easy solution to the problem of the two kingdoms. She is acclaimed queen of Scotland in 1286. The king of England, Edward I, sets about arranging a marriage between the child and his own infant son (two years younger than Margaret), the future Edward II. The intention is that the bridegroom shall eventually rule over both kingdoms, with safeguards to ensure the separate integrity of Scotland. In 1289 the pope gives his approval. In 1290 Margaret sails from Norway to meet her intended husband. During the journey she falls ill. She never reaches her Scottish kingdom. She dies, at the age of eight, in the Orkneys.
Edward I and Scotland: AD 1290-1297 - when the Maid of Norway dies, in 1290, there are thirteen claimants to the vacant Scottish throne - each somewhat tenuously related to the royal family. The king of England, Edward I, asserts his right as the feudal overlord to choose between them.
The two most serious contenders, descended from great-granddaughters of David I, are John de Balliol and Robert de Bruce. In 1292 Edward chooses John - an entirely reasonable choice, since John descends from the elder of the great-granddaughters. But Edward's humiliating treatment of the new king as his feudal vassal is less than tactful. So are his demands that Scottish barons shall do service in England's war against France. Scottish resentment is expressed, in 1295, in a treaty with France against England. This prompts, in 1296, a swift and brutally effective invasion by Edward. It begins with the massacre of almost the entire male population of Berwick. Seventeen days later Stirling and Edinburgh castles are in English hands. John de Balliol and his court are prisoners, destined for the Tower of London. The sacred Scottish coronation seat, the Stone of Scone, travels south at the same time - to a new home (until 1996) in Westminster Abbey. An English government is set up north of the border. Scotland is humiliated, but only briefly so. The very next year, 1297, a war of independence is launched.
Scotland's Wars of Independence: from AD 1297 - the main leader to emerge from the uprisings in Scotland in 1297 is William Wallace. Confronted by an English army outside Stirling, on September 11, he holds back his troops and thus entices the enemy across a narrow bridge over the river Forth. When about half are over the river, Wallace attacks so forcefully that nearly all the English on the northern bank are killed or are drowned in flight. The prestige of this victory at Stirling Bridge enables Wallace to rule Scotland briefly on behalf of the imprisoned John de Balliol. But the situation brings Edward I north in person in 1298. At Falkirk, in 1298, Edward avenges the humiliation of Stirling Bridge. English and Welsh archers inflict devastating casualties on the massed ranks of Scottish spearmen, in an early example of the power of the longbow (half a century before its more famous deployment at Crйcy). This defeat undermines the authority of Wallace, who vanishes from history until his capture and execution in 1305. But Edward is committed now to holding down the Scots by force of arms - a task more difficult, over a much wider region, than his subjection of Wales. And from 1306 he is confronted by a newly proclaimed Scottish king, in the person of Robert de Bruce.
Robert the Bruce: AD 1306-1314 - Robert de Bruce, or Robert the Bruce as he is often known in British history, is the grandson of the Robert de Bruce whose claim to the Scottish throne was rejected in favour of John de Balliol's. The Bruces are one of the great Norman families invited north of the border by the Scottish kings. The eldest son in every generation of the family is christened Robert. The head of the family in the early 14th century is Robert de Bruce VIII. By 1306, with Wallace dead and John de Balliol living privately in Normandy (after renouncing his throne), the Scots lack both a leader and a king. Bruce's ambition to fill both roles becomes evident after an act of violence in 1306. John Comyn, a member of another great Norman family and a nephew of John de Balliol, is a natural rival of Bruce's with perhaps slightly better claims to the Scottish throne. On 10 February 1306 the two men and several of their followers are in the Franciscan church in Dumfries. A quarrel breaks out. It is not known whether the event is premeditated. But it ends with John Comyn lying dead before the high altar. After the murder Bruce moves quickly to secure his position. On March 25 he is crowned at Scone, still the sacred site for the occasion - even though it now lacks the ancient Stone of Scone, linked with Scottish kingship. During the next few months the new king's fortunes could hardly sink lower. Defeated in two battles, in June and August, he flees for safety to the island of Rathlin off the northern Irish coast. (His supposed place of refuge is still shown as Bruce's Cave, but the story of the spider demonstrating to him the importance of perseverance is first told in the 19th century by Walter Scott.) In Bruce's absence three of his brothers are captured by the English and are executed. In February 1307 Bruce returns to Scotland, to persevere in self-advancement. His final success, firmly establishing his authority within the kingdom, comes with victory at Bannockburn in 1314.
Bannockburn and after: AD 1314-1328 - by 1314 Bruce's slow campaign of guerrilla warfare and attrition has brought into his hands all the English strongholds in Scotland except Stirling. The Scottish threat to this great castle brings Edward II north to its defence. On June 24 Bruce, with only about 8000 men, is confronted by an English army of double that size. But he chooses his ground well - an area of boggy turf about two miles south of Stirling, with a narrow front and the Bannock burn to cut off the enemy's retreat. The English cavalry flounder in the face of Scottish footsoldiers armed with spears. The day is a resounding success for Scotland, bringing rich rewards in prestige, booty and ransom. In the years after Bannockburn, Bruce continually raids south across the border into England. And he extends his campaign against the English by sending Edward Bruce, his only surviving brother, to attack them in 1315 in Ireland. The Irish campaign ends in 1318 with the death of Edward Bruce, but in the north of England Robert Bruce's aggressive tactics go unchecked. Edward II marches north with large armies in 1319 and again in 1322, but achieves nothing. After his death, in 1327, the English are ready to come to terms. At Edinburgh, in March 1328, a treaty is agreed - and is ratified at an English parliament in Northampton the following month. The Scots are to pay Ј20,000 in reparation for damage done in the northern counties of England, but otherwise the concessions are all to their benefit. Above all it is agreed that Scotland shall 'remain to Robert king of Scots and his heirs and successors free and divided from the kingdom of England, without any subjection, right of service, claim or demand'. As a token for a better future, Bruce's 4-year-old son David is married in July, in Berwick, to Joanna, the 7-year-old sister of the new English king, Edward III. The agreements of 1328 raise the hope that Scotland is due at last for a period of calm. But the death of Robert the Bruce in 1329 brings his son David, now aged five, to the throne. The English instinct to meddle in Scottish affairs is revived. Edward, the son of John de Balliol (who has died in 1314), is encouraged to stake a claim to his father's throne. Scotland is again plunged into war.
Robert the Bruce's son, David II, spends much of his reign in exile or in captivity. But he is still on the throne when he dies, childless, in 1371. The future of the royal house lies with the descendants of his elder sister, Marjorie. She married, in 1315, one of Scotland's hereditary stewards.
The Stewart dynasty: AD 1371-1503 - the Stewarts, a family from Brittany, take their name from their job. In Brittany in the 11th century they are stewards to the local count. In about 1136 one of the family, Walter, becomes steward to the king of Scotland. Two decades later the appointment is made hereditary. Another Walter, the 6th steward in this line, fights beside Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn in 1314. He is knighted by the king on the field of battle. In the following year he marries Bruce's daughter Marjorie. Their child Robert, the 7th steward, succeeds his uncle David II as king of Scots in 1371 - ruling as Robert II, and establishing the Stewart dynasty on the Scottish throne. Stewart rule in Scotland is bedevilled from the start by the power of great barons (in particular the Douglas family), whose rich ancestral territories have been the reward for their support of Robert the Bruce or of his son David II. To the south the English remain as eager as ever to foment trouble when an opportunity presents itself. Even so, during the 15th century, royal authority is gradually established in most parts of the kingdom. And the marriage of James III in 1469 to Margaret of Denmark brings into Scottish hands the last two island groups held by Scandinavians - the Orkneys and Shetlands. Even the long centuries of turmoil with England seem to be settled (once again), when James IV makes two promising alliances with Henry VII. In 1502 the monarchs agree to a 'treaty of perpetual peace'. And in 1503 James marries Henry's daughter, Margaret Tudor. In exactly 100 years' time this marriage will result in a final ironic reversal of the long English struggle to dominate the royal family of Scotland. It will deliver the English crown to the Stewarts. But the intervening years bring many setbacks for the Scots [5, p. 62 - 65].
2.2 The foundation of St. Andrew`s University
One of the greatest event of cultural life of Scotland 15th century was the foundation of the oldest University in Scotland - St. Andrew`s. The university was founded in 1410 when a charter of incorporation was bestowed upon the Augustinian priory of St Andrews Cathedral. A Papal Bull was issued in 1413 by the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII. A royal charter was granted in 1532. The University grew in size quite rapidly; A pedagogy, St John's College was founded 1418-1430 by Robert of Montrose and Lawrence of Lindores, St Salvator's College was established in 1450, St Leonard's College in 1511, and St Mary's College in 1537. St Mary's College was a re-foundation of St Johns College and earlier pedagogy. Some of the early college buildings that are in use today date from this period such as St Salvator's Chapel and St Leonards College chapel and St M
Scotland: History and Modernity курсовая работа. История и исторические личности.
Дипломная работа по теме Оснoвні oзнaки держaви
Реферат: Public Vs Private Essay Research Paper In
Курсовая работа по теме Финансовая эффективность функционирования предприятия
Наталья Карнаух Учимся Писать Эссе
Курсовая Работа На Тему Операции С Векселями
Контрольная Работа На Тему Тригонометрические Функции
Пример Дипломной Работы Строительство
Великий Художник Барокко П П Рубенс Эссе
Реферат по теме Синергетика как новое научное направление
Реферат: How Did The Invention Of The First
Отчет по практике по теме Инженерно-геодезические изыскания
Курсовая Работа На Тему Лфк
Кандзявые Эссе Купить
Курсовая работа по теме Кирпичный жилой дом 7,9 этажей по ул. Мирной в г. Петрозаводск
Реферат: Языковые особенности офицально -делового стиля
Курсовая работа по теме Режим чрезвычайного положения
Экзаменационные вопросы к государственному экзамену по теории государства и права
Дипломная работа по теме Пути повышения производительности труда на предприятии ООО 'АПК Мавр'
Современный Ученый Какой Он Эссе
Контрольная работа по теме Основы финансового права
Залог как один из эффективных способов обеспечения исполнения обязательств по кредитным договорам - Государство и право курсовая работа
Источники международного частного права. Коллизионные вопросы права собственности - Государство и право контрольная работа
Сравнительный анализ гласных и согласных звуков японского и русского языков. Долгота звуков - Иностранные языки и языкознание курсовая работа