Sapiens

Notas

Página 39 de 40

Notas

1. UN ANIMAL SIN IMPORTANCIA

[1] Ann Gibbons, «Food for Thought: Did the First Cooked Meals Help Fuel the Dramatic Evolutionary Expansion of the Human Brain?», Science, 316, 5831 (2007), pp. 1.558-1.560. <<

2. EL ÁRBOL DEL SABER

[1] Robin Dunbar, Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1998. <<

[2] Frans de Waal, Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000 [hay trad. cast.: La política de los chimpancés. El poder y el sexo entre los simios, Madrid, Alianza, 1993]; Frans de Waal, Our Inner Ape: A Leading Primatologist Explains Why We Are Who We Are, Nueva York, Riverhead Books, 2005 [hay trad. cast.: El mono que llevamos dentro, Barcelona, Tusquets, 2007]; Michael L. Wilson y Richard W. Wrangham, «Intergroup Relations in Chimpanzees», Annual Review of Anthropology, 32 (2003), pp. 363-392; M. McFarland Symington, «Fission-Fusion Social Organization in Ateles and Pan», International Journal of Primatology, 11, 1 (1990), p. 49; Colin A. Chapman y Lauren J. Chapman, «Determinants of Groups Size in Primates: The Importance of Travel Costs», en Sue Boinsky y Paul A. Garber, eds., On the Move: How and Why Animals Travel in Groups, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2000, p. 26. <<

[3] Dunbar, Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language, pp. 69-79; Leslie C. Aiello y R. I. M. Dunbar, «Neocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language», Current Anthropology, 34, 2 (1993), p. 189. Para una crítica a esta interpretación, véase Christopher McCarthy et al., «Comparing Two Methods for Estimating Network Size», Human Organization, 60, 1 (2001), p. 32; R. A. Hill y R. I. M. Dunbar, «Social Network Size in Humans», Human Nature, 14, 1 (2003), p. 65. <<

[4] Yvette Taborin, «Shells of the French Aurignacian and Perigordian», en Heidi Knecht, Anne Pike-Tay y Randall White, eds., Before Lascaux: The Complete Record of the Early Upper Paleolithic, Boca Raton, CRC Press, 1993, pp. 211-228. <<

[5] G. R. Summerhayes, «Application of PIXE-PIGME to Archaeological Analysis of Changing Patterns of Obsidian Use in West New Britain, Papua New Guinea», en Steven M. Shackley, ed., Archaeological Obsidian Studies: Method and Theory, Nueva York, Plenum Press, 1998, pp. 129-158. <<

3. UN DÍA EN LA VIDA DE ADÁN Y EVA

[1] Christopher Ryan y Cacilda Jethá, Sex at Dawn: The Prehistoric Origins of Modern Sexuality, Nueva York, Harper, 2010 [hay trad. cast.: En el principio era el sexo. Los orígenes de la sexualidad moderna, cómo nos emparejamos y por qué nos separamos, Barcelona, Paidós, 2012]; S. Beckerman y P. Valentine, eds., Cultures of Multiple Fathers. The Theory and Practice of Partible Paternity in Lowland South America, Gainesville, University Press of Florida, 2002. <<

[2] Noel G. Butlin, Economics and the Dreamtime: A Hypothetical History, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp. 98-101; Richard Broome, Aboriginal Australians, Sidney, Allen & Unwin, 2002, p. 15; William Howell Edwards, An Introduction to Aboriginal Societies, Wentworth Falls, N. S. W., Social Science Press, 1988, p. 52. <<

[3] Fekri A. Hassan, Demographic Archaeology, Nueva York, Academic Press, 1981, pp. 196-199; Lewis Robert Binford, Constructing Frames of Reference: An Analytical Method for Archaeological Theory Building Using Hunter Gatherer and Environmental Data Sets, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2001, p. 143. <<

[4] Brian Hare, The Genius of Dogs: How Dogs Are Smarter Than You Think, Dutton, Penguin Group, 2013. <<

[5] Christopher B. Ruff, Erik Trinkaus y Trenton W. Holliday, «Body Mass and Encephalization in Pleistocene Homo», Nature, 387 (1997), pp. 173-176; M. Henneberg y M. Steyn, «Trends in Cranial Capacity and Cranial Index in Subsaharan Africa During the Holocene», American Journal of Human Biology, 5, 4 (1993), pp. 473-479; Drew H. Bailey y David C. Geary, «Hominid Brain Evolution: Testing Climatic, Ecological, and Social Competition Models», Human Nature, 20 (2009), pp. 67-79; Daniel J. Wescott y Richard L. Jantz, «Assessing Craniofacial Secular Change in American Blacks and Whites Using Geometric Morphometry», en Dennis E. Slice, ed., Modern Morphometrics in Physical Anthropology: Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects, Nueva York, Plenum Publishers, 2005, pp. 231-245. <<

[6] Nicholas G. Blurton Jones et al., «Antiquity of Postreproductive Life: Are There Modern Impact on Hunter-Gatherer Postreproductive Life Spans?», American Journal of Human Biology, 14 (2002), pp. 184-205. <<

[7] Kim Hill y A. Magdalena Hurtado, Ache Life History: The Ecology and Demography of a Foraging People, Nueva York, Aldine de Gruyter, 1996, pp. 164 y 236. <<

[8] Hill y Hurtado, Ache Life History, p. 78. <<

[9] Vincenzo Formicola y Alexandra P. Buzhilova, «Double Child Burial from Sunghir (Russia): Pathology and Inferences for Upper Paleolithic Funerary Practices», American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 124, 3 (2004), pp. 189-198; Giacomo Giacobini, «Richness and Diversity of Burial Rituals in the Upper Paleolithic», Diogenes, 54, 2 (2007), pp. 19-39. <<

[10] I. J. N. Thorpe, «Anthropology, Archaeology, and the Origin of Warfare», World Archaeology, 35, 1 (2003), pp. 145-165; Raymond C. Kelly, Warless Societies and the Origin of War, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 2000; Azar Gat, War in Human Civilization, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006; Lawrence H. Keeley, War before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996; Slavomil Vencl, «Stone Age Warfare», en John Carman y Anthony Harding, eds., Ancient Warfare: Archaeological Perspectives, Stroud, Sutton Publishing, 1999, pp. 57-73. <<

4. EL DILUVIO

[1] James F. O’Connel y Jim Allen, «Pre-LGM Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea) and the Archeology of Early Modern Humans», en Paul Mellars, Ofer Bar-Yosef y Katie Boyle, eds., Rethinking the Human Revolution: New Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans, Cambridge, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2007, pp. 395-410; James F. O’Connel y Jim Allen, «When Did Humans First Arrived in Greater Australia and Why Is It Important to Know?», Evolutionary Anthropology, 6, 4 (1998), pp. 132-146; James F. O’Connel y Jim Allen, «Dating the Colonization of Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea): A Review of Recent Research», Journal of Radiological Science, 31, 6 (2004), pp. 835-853; Jon M. Erlandson, «Anatomically Modern Humans, Maritime Voyaging, and the Pleistocene Colonization of the Americas», en Nina G. Jablonski, ed., The first Americans: the Pleistocene Colonization of the New World, San Francisco, University of California Press, 2002, pp. 59-60 y 63-64; Jon M. Erlandson y Torben C. Rick, «Archeology Meets Marine Ecology: The Antiquity of Maritime Cultures and Human Impacts on Marine Fisheries and Ecosystems», Annual Review of Marine Science, 2 (2010), pp. 231-251; Atholl Anderson, «Slow Boats from China: Issues in the Prehistory of Indo-China Seafaring», Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia, 16 (2000), pp. 13-50; Robert G. Bednarik, «Maritime Navigation in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic», Earth and Planetary Sciences, 328 (1999), pp. 559-560; Robert G. Bednarik, «Seafaring in the Pleistocene», Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 13, 1 (2003), pp. 41-66. <<

[2] Timothy F. Flannery, The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and Peoples, Port Melbourne, Vic., Reed Books Australia, 1994; Anthony D. Barnosky et al., «Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents», Science, 306, 5693 (2004), pp. 70-75; Bary W. Brook y David M. J. S. Bowman, «The Uncertain Blitzkrieg of Pleistocene Megafauna», Journal of Biogeography, 31, 4 (2004), pp. 517-523; Gifford H. Miller et al., «Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction», Science, 309, 5732 (2005), pp. 287-290; Richard G. Roberts et al., «New Ages for the Last Australian Megafauna: Continent Wide Extinction about 46,000 Years Ago», Science, 292, 5523 (2001), pp. 1.888-1.892. <<

[3] Stephen Wroe y Judith Field, «A Review of Evidence for a Human Role in the Extinction of Australian Megafauna and an Alternative Explanation», Quaternary Science Reviews, 25, 21-22 (2006), pp. 2.692-2.703; Barry W. Brooks et al., «Would the Australian Megafauna Have Become Extinct If Humans Had Never Colonised the Continent? Comments on “A Review of the Evidence for a Human Role in the Extinction of Australian Megafauna and an Alternative Explanation” by S. Wroe y J. Field», Quaternary Science Reviews, 26, 3-4 (2007), pp. 560-564; Chris S. M. Turney et al., «Late-Surviving Megafauna in Tasmania, Australia, Implicate Human Involvement in their Extinction», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 34 (2008), pp. 12.150-12.153. <<

[4] John Alroy, «A Multispecies Overkill Simulation of the End-Pleistocene Megafaunal Mass Extinction», Science, 292, 5523 (2001), pp. 1.893-1.896; O’Connel y Allen, «Pre-LGM Sahul», pp. 400-401. <<

[5] L. H. Keeley, «Proto-Agricultural Practices Among Hunter-Gatherers: A Cross-Cultural Survey», en T. Douglas Price y Anne Birgitte Gebauer, eds., Last Hunters, First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture, Santa Fe, N. M., School of American Research Press, 1995, pp. 243-272; R. Jones, «Firestick Farming», Australian Natural History, 16 (1969), pp. 224-228. <<

[6] David J. Meltzer, First Peoples in a New World: Colonizing Ice Age America, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2009. <<

[7] Paul L. Koch y Anthony D. Barnosky, «Late Quaternary Extinctions: State of the Debate», The Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 37 (2006), pp. 215-250; Anthony D. Barnosky et al., «Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents», pp. 70-75. <<

5. EL MAYOR FRAUDE DE LA HISTORIA

[1] El mapa se basa principalmente en: Peter Bellwood, First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies, Malden, Blackwell Pub., 2005. El mapa, y todo el capítulo, se basan también en Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fate of Human Societies, Nueva York, W. W. Norton, 1997 [hay trad. cast.: Armas, gérmenes y acero, Barcelona, Debate, 2007]. <<

[2] Azar Gat, War in Human Civilization, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006, pp. 130-131; Robert S. Walker y Drew H. Bailey, «Body Counts in Lowland South American Violence», Evolution and Human Behavior, 34 (2013), pp. 29-34. <<

[3] Katherine A. Spielmann, «A Review: Dietary Restriction on Hunter-Gatherer Women and the Implications for Fertility and Infant Mortality», Human Ecology, 17, 3 (1989), pp. 321-345. Véase también Bruce Winterhalder y Eric Alder Smith, «Analyzing Adaptive Strategies: Human Behavioral Ecology at Twenty Five», Evolutionary Anthropology, 9, 2 (2000), pp. 51-72. <<

[4] Alain Bideau, Bertrand Desjardins y Hector Perez-Brignoli, eds., Infant and Child Mortality in the Past, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997; Edward Anthony Wrigley et al., English Population History from Family Reconstitution, 1580-1837, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 295-296 y 303. <<

[5] Manfred Heun et al., «Site of Einkorn Wheat Domestication Identified by DNA Fingerprints», Science, 278, 5341 (1997), pp. 1.312-1.314. <<

[6] Charles Patterson, Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust, Nueva York, Lantern Books, 2002, pp. 9-10 [hay trad. cast.: ¿Por qué maltratamos tanto a los animales? Un modelo para la masacre de personas en los campos de exterminio nazis, Lleida, Milenio, 2008]; Peter J. Ucko y G. W. Dimbleby, eds., The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals, Londres, Duckworth, 1969, p. 259. <<

[7] Avi Pinkas, ed., Farmyard Animals in Israel. Research, Humanism and Activity, Rishon Le-Ziyyon, The Association for Farmyard Animals, 2009 (hebreo), pp. 169-199; «Milk Production-the Cow» (hebreo), The Dairy Council, consultado el 22 de marzo de 2012, http://www.milk.org.il/cgi-webaxy/sal/sal.pl?lang=he&ID=645657_milk&act=show&dbid=katavot&dataid=cow.htm. <<

[8] Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1969 [hay trad. cast.: Los nuer, Barcelona, Anagrama, 1997]; E. C. Amoroso y P. A. Jewell, «The Exploitation of the Milk-Ejection Reflex by Primitive People», en A. E. Mourant y F. E. Zeuner, eds., Man and Cattle: Proceedings of the Symposium on Domestication at the Royal Anthropological Institute, 24-26 May 1960, Londres, The Royal Anthropological Institute, 1963, pp. 129-134. <<

[9] Johannes Nicolaisen, Ecology and Culture of the Pastoral Tuareg, Copenhague, National Museum, 1963, p. 63. <<

6. CONSTRUYENDO PIRÁMIDES

[1] Angus Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 2, París, Development Centre of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, 2006, p. 636 [hay trad. cast.: La economía mundial, Madrid, Mundi-Prensa, 2002]; «Historical Estimates of World Population», U. S. Census Bureau, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html. <<

[2] Robert B. Mark, The Origins of the Modern World: A Global and Ecological Narrative, Lanham, MD, Rowman & Littlefield, 2002, p. 24. <<

[3] Raymond Westbrook, «Old Babylonian Period», en Raymond Westbrook, ed., A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law, vol. 1, Leiden, Brill, 2003, pp. 361-430; Martha T. Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, 2.ª ed., Atlanta, Scholars Press, 1997, pp. 71-142; M. E. J. Richardson, Hammurabi’s Laws: Text, Translation and Glossary, Londres, T & T Clark International, 2000. <<

[4] Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, p. 76. <<

[5] Ibid., p. 121. <<

[6] Ibid., pp. 122-123. <<

[7] Ibid., pp. 133-134. <<

[8] Constance Brittaine Bouchard, Strong of Body, Brave and Noble: Chivalry and Society in Medieval France, Nueva York, Cornell University Press, 1998, p. 99; Mary Martin McLaughlin, «Survivors and Surrogates: Children and Parents from the Ninth to Thirteenth Centuries», en Carol Neel, ed., Medieval Families: Perspectives on Marriage, Household and Children, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 2004, p. 81, n. 81; Lise E. Hull, Britain’s Medieval Castles, Westport, Praeger, 2006, p. 144. <<

7. SOBRECARGA DE MEMORIA

[1] Andrew Robinson, The Story of Writing, Nueva York, Thames and Hudson, 1995, p. 63 [hay trad. cast.: La historia de la escritura, Barcelona, Destino, 1996]; Hans J. Nissen, Peter Damerow y Robert K. Englung, Archaic Bookkeeping: Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East, Chicago, Londres, The University of Chicago Press, 1993, p. 36. <<

[2] Marcia y Robert Ascher, Mathematics of the Incas. Code of the Quipu, Nueva York, Dover, 1981. <<

[3] Gary Urton, Signs of the Inka Khipu, Austin, University of Texas Press, 2003; Galen Brokaw, A History of the Khipu, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010. <<

[4] Stephen D. Houston, ed., The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 222. <<

8. NO HAY JUSTICIA EN LA HISTORIA

[1] Sheldon Pollock, «Axialism and Empire», en Johann P. Arnason, S. N. Eisenstadt y Björn Wittrock, eds., Axial Civilizations and World History, Leiden, Brill, 2005, pp. 397-451. <<

[2] Harold M. Tanner, China: A History, Indianapolis, Hackett, Pub. Co., 2009, p. 34. <<

[3] Ramesh Chandra, Identity and Genesis of Caste System in India, Delhi, Kalpaz, 2005; Michael Bamshad et al., «Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Population», Genome Research, 11 (2001), pp. 904-1.004; Susan Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999. <<

[4] Houston, First Writing, p. 196. <<

[5] The Secretary-General, United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the In-depth Study on All Forms of Violence Against Women, delivered to the General Assembly, U. N. Doc. A/16/122/Add.1 (6 de julio de 2006), p. 89. <<

[6] Sue Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1995, pp. 113-129 y 132-133. <<

10. EL OLOR DEL DINERO

[1] Francisco López de Gómara, Historia de la conquista de México, vol. 1, Joaquín Ramírez Cabañes, ed., Ciudad de México, Pedro Robredo, 1943, p. 106. <<

[2] Andrew M. Watson, «Back to Gold-and Silver», Economic History Review, 20, 1 (1967), pp. 11-12; Jasim Alubudi, Repertorio bibliográfico del islam, Madrid, Visión Libros, 2003, p. 194. <<

[3] Watson, «Back to Gold-and Silver», pp. 17-18. <<

[4] David Graeber, Debt: The First 5,000 Years, Brooklyn, N. Y., Melville House, 2011 [hay trad. cast.: En deuda. Una historia alternativa de la economía, Barcelona, Ariel, 2012]. <<

[5] Glyn Davies, A History of Money: from Ancient Times to the Present Day, Cardiff, University of Wales Press, 1994, p. 15. <<

[6] Szymon Laks, Music of Another World, trad. de Chester A. Kisiel, Evanston, Ill., Northwestern University Press, 1989, pp. 88-89. El «mercado» de Auschwitz estaba restringido a determinadas clases de prisioneros, y las condiciones cambiaron mucho a lo largo del tiempo. <<

[7] Niall Ferguson, The Ascent of Money, Nueva York, The Penguin Press, 2008, p. 4 [hay trad. cast.: El triunfo del dinero. Cómo las finanzas mueven el mundo, Barcelona, Debate, 2011]. <<

[8] Para la información sobre el dinero de cebada me he basado en una tesis doctoral inédita: Refael Benvenisti, Economic Institutions of Ancient Assyrian Trade in the Twentieth to Eighteenth Centuries BC, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, tesis electoral inédita, 2011. Véase también Norman Yoffee, «The Economy of Ancient Western Asia», en J. M. Sasson, ed., Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, Nueva York, C. Scribner’s Sons, 1995, pp. 1.387-1.399; R. K. Englund, «Proto-Cuneiform Account-Books and Journals», en Michael Hudson y Cornelia Wunsch, eds., Creating Economic Order: Record-keeping, Standardization, and the Development of Accounting in the Ancient Near East, Bethesda, MD, CDL Press, 2004, pp. 21-46; Marvin A. Powell, «A Contribution to the History of Money in Mesopotamia prior to the Invention of Coinage», en B. Hruška y G. Komoróczy, eds., Festschrift Lubor Matouš, Budapest, Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem, 1978, pp. 211-243; Marvin A. Powell, «Money in Mesopotamia», Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 39, 3 (1996), pp. 224-242; John F. Robertson, «The Social and Economic Organization of Ancient Mesopotamian Temples», en Sasson, ed., Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, 443-500; M. Silver, «Modern Ancients», en R. Rollinger y U. Christoph, eds., Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World: Means of Transmission and Cultural Interaction, Stuttgart, Steiner, 2004, pp. 65-87; Daniel C. Snell, «Methods of Exchange and Coinage in Ancient Western Asia», en Sasson, ed., Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol.

1, pp. 1.487-1.497. <<

11. VISIONES IMPERIALES

[1] Nahum Megged, The Aztecs, Tel Aviv, Dvir, 1999 (hebreo), p. 103. <<

[2] Tácito, Agricola, cap. 30, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1958, pp. 220-221. <<

[3] A. Fienup-Riordan, The Nelson Island Eskimo: Social Structure and Ritual Distribution, Anchorage, Alaska Pacific University Press, 1983, p. 10. <<

[4] Yuri Pines, «Nation States, Globalization and a United Empire-the Chinese Experience (third to fifth centuries BC)», Historia, 15 (1995), 54 (hebreo). <<

[5] Alexander Yakobson, «Us and Them: Empire, Memory and Identity in Claudius’ Speech on Bringing Gauls into the Roman Senate», en Doron Mendels, ed., On Memory: An Interdisciplinary Approach, Oxford, Peter Land, 2007, pp. 23-24. <<

12. LA LEY DE LA RELIGIÓN

[1] W. H. C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church, Cambridge, James Clarke, 2008, pp. 536-537. <<

[2] Robert Jean Knecht, The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France, 1483-1610, Londres, Fontana Press, 1996, p. 424. <<

[3] Marie Harm y Hermann Wiehle, Lebenskunde fuer Mittelschulen-Fuenfter Teil. Klasse 5 fuer Jungen, Halle, Hermann Schroedel, 1942, pp. 152-157. <<

13. EL SECRETO DEL ÉXITO

[1] Susan Blackmore, The Meme Machine, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999 [hay trad. cast.: La máquina de los memes, Barcelona, Paidós, 2000. Véase también Robert Aunger, El meme eléctrico, Barcelona, Paidós, 2004]. <<

14. EL DESCUBRIMIENTO DE LA IGNORANCIA

[1] David Christian, Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2004, pp. 344-345 [hay trad. cast.: Mapas del tiempo: Introducción a la «gran historia», Barcelona, Crítica, 2006]; Angus Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 2, París, Development Centre of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001, p. 636; «Historical Estimates of World Population», U. S. Census Bureau, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html. <<

[2] Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1, p. 261. <<

[3] «Gross Domestic Product 2009», The World Bank, Data and Statistics, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP.pdf. <<

[4] Christian, Maps of Time, p. 141. <<

[5] El mayor buque mercante contemporáneo puede contener unas 100.000 toneladas. En 1470, todas las flotas del mundo podían llevar en su conjunto no más de 320.000 toneladas. Hacia el año 1570, el tonelaje total global había aumentado hasta las 730.000 toneladas (Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1, p. 97). <<

[6] El mayor banco del mundo, The Royal Bank of Scotland, ha declarado en 2007 depósitos por un valor de 1,3 billones de dólares. Esto es cinco veces la producción total global de 1500. Véase «Annual Report and Accounts 2008», The Royal Bank of Scotland, 35, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/RBS/626570033x0x278481/eb7a003a-5c9b-41ef-bad3-81fb98a6c823/RBS_GRA_2008_09_03_09.pdf. <<

[7] Ferguson, Ascent of Money, pp. 185-198. <<

[8] Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1, p. 31; Wrigley, English Population History, p. 295; Christian, Maps of Time, pp. 450 y 452; «World Health Statistic Report 2009», pp. 35-45, World Health Organization, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS09_Full.pdf <<

[9] Wrigley, English Population History, p. 296. <<

[10] «England, Interim Life Tables, 1980-1982 to 2007-09», Office for National Statistics, consultado el 22 de marzo de 2012, http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-61850. <<

[11] Michael Prestwich, Edward I, Berkley, University of California Press, 1988, pp. 125-126. <<

[12] Jennie B. Dorman et al., «The age-1 and daf-2 Genes Function in a Common Pathway to Control the Lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans», Genetics, 141, 4 (1995), pp. 1.399-1.406; Koen Houthoofd et al., «Life Extension via Dietary Restriction is Independent of the Ins/IGF-1 Signaling Pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans», Experimental Gerontology, 38, 9 (2003), pp. 947-954. <<

[13] Shawn M. Douglas, Ido Bachelet y George M. Church, «A Logic-Gated Nanorobot for Targeted Transport of Molecular Payloads», Science, 335, 6070 (2012), pp. 831-834; Dan Peer et al., «Nanocarriers As An Emerging Platform for Cancer Therapy», Nature Nanotechnology, 2 (2007), pp. 751-760; Dan Peer et al., «Systemic Leukocyte-Directed siRNA Delivery Revealing Cyclin D1 as an Anti-Inflammatory Target», Science, 319, 5863 (2008), pp. 627-630. <<

15. EL MATRIMONIO DE CIENCIA E IMPERIO

[1] Stephen R. Bown, Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner, and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail, Nueva York, Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin’s Press, 2004 [hay trad. cast.: Escorbuto. Cómo un médico, un navegante y un caballero resolvieron el misterio de la peste de las naos, Barcelona, Juventud, 2005]; Kenneth John Carpenter, The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1986. <<

[2] James Cook, The Explorations of Captain James Cook in the Pacific, as Told by Selections of his Own Journals 1768-1779, Archibald Grenfell Price, ed., Nueva York, Dover, 1971, pp. 16-17 [hay trad. cast.: Los viajes del capitán Cook (1768-1779), Barcelona, Serbal, 1985]; Gananath Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1992, p. 5; J. C. Beaglehole, ed., The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery, vol. 1, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1968, p. 588. <<

[3] Mark, Origins of the Modern World, p. 81. <<

[4] Christian, Maps of Time, p. 436. <<

[5] John Darwin, After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire since 1405, Londres, Allen Lane, 2007, p. 239 [hay trad. cast.: El sueño del imperio. Auge y caída de las potencias globales, 1400-2000, Tres Cantos, Taurus, 2012]. <<

[6] Soli Shahvar, «Railroads i. The First Railroad Built and Operated in Persia», en la edición en línea de la Encyclopaedia Iranica, modificada por última vez el 7 de abril de 2008, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/railroads-i; Charles Issawi, «The Iranian Economy 1925-1975: Fifty Years of Economic Development», en George Lenczowski, ed., Iran under the Pahlavis, Stanford, Hoover Institution Press, 1978, p. 156. <<

[7] Mark, The Origins of the Modern World, p. 46. <<

[8] Kirkpatrik Sale, Christopher Columbus and the Conquest of Paradise, Londres, Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2006, pp. 7-13. <<

[9] Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society: 1815-1914, Londres, Longman, 1980, p. 121; Robin Moore, «Imperial India, 1858-1914», en Andrew Porter, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, Nueva York, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 442. <<

[10] Vinita Damodaran, «Famine in Bengal: A Comparison of the 1770 Famine in Bengal and the 1897 Famine in Chotanagpur», The Medieval History Journal, 10, 1-2 (2007), p. 151. <<

16. EL CREDO CAPITALISTA

[1] Maddison, World Economy, vol. 1, pp. 261 y 264; «Gross National Income Per Capita 2009, Atlas Method and PPP», The World Bank, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf. <<

[2] Las matemáticas de mi ejemplo de la pastelería no son tan precisas como deberían. Puesto que a los bancos se les permite prestar diez dólares por cada dólar que tienen en su posesión, de cada millón de dólares depositados en el banco, este puede prestar a emprendedores solo unos 909.000, y conservar en sus cámaras 91.000. Pero para facilitar la vida a los lectores, he preferido trabajar con números redondos. Además, los bancos no siempre siguen las reglas. <<

[3] Carl Trocki, Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy, Nueva York, Routledge, 1999, p. 91. <<

[4] Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A People’s History, Londres, Zed Books, 2002, p. 22. <<

17. LAS RUEDAS DE LA INDUSTRIA

[1] Mark, Origins of the Modern World, p. 109. <<

[2] Nathan S. Lewis y Daniel G. Nocera, «Powering the Planet: Chemical Challenges in Solar Energy Utilization», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103, 43 (2006), p. 15.731. <<

[3] Kazuhisa Miyamoto, ed., «Renewable Biological Systems for Alternative Sustainable Energy Production», FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin, 128, Osaka, Osaka University, 1997, cap. 2.1.1, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.fao.org/docrep/W7241E/w7241e06.htm#2.1.1percent20solarpercent20energy; James Barber, «Biological Solar Energy», Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 365, 1853 (2007), p. 1.007. <<

[4] «International Energy Outlook 2010», U. S. Energy Information Administration, 9, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/pdf/0484(2010).pdf. <<

[5] S. Venetsky, «“Silver” from Clay», Metallurgist, 13, 7 (1969), p. 451; Fred Aftalion, A History of the International Chemical Industry, Filadelfia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991, p. 64; A. J. Downs, Chemistry of Aluminum, Gallium, Indium and Thallium, Glasgow, Blackie Academic & Professional, 1993, 15. <<

[6] Jan Willem Erisman et al., «How a Century of Ammonia Synthesis Changed the World», Nature Geoscience, 1 (2008), p. 637. <<

[7] G. J. Benson y B. E. Rollin, eds., The Well-Being of Farm Animals: Challenges and Solutions, Ames, IA, Blackwell, 2004; M. C. Appleby, J. A. Mench y B. O. Hughes, Poultry Behaviour and Welfare, Wallingford, CABI Publishing, 2004; J. Webster, Animal Welfare: Limping Towards Eden, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2005; C. Druce y P. Lymbery, Outlawed in Europe: How America Is Falling Behind Europe in Farm Animal Welfare, Nueva York, Archimedean Press, 2002. <<

[8] Harry Harlow y Robert Zimmermann, «Affectional Responses in the Infant Monkey», Science, 130, 3373 (1959), pp. 421-432; Harry Harlow, «The Nature of Love», American Psychologist, 13 (1958), pp. 673-685; Laurens D. Young et al., «Early Stress and Later Response to Separation in Rhesus Monkeys», American Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 4 (1973), pp. 400-405; K. D. Broad, J. P. Curley y E. B. Keverne, «Mother-infant Bonding and the Evolution of Mammalian Social Relationships», Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 361,1476 (2006), pp. 2.199-2.214; Florent Pittet et al., «Effects of Maternal Experience on Fearfulness and Maternal Behaviour in a Precocial Bird», Animal Behavior (marzo de 2013), en prensa; disponible en línea en: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347213000547). <<

[9] «National Institute of Food and Agriculture», United States Department of Agriculture, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.csrees.usda.gov/qlinks/extension.html. <<

18. UNA REVOLUCIÓN PERMANENTE

[1] Vaclav Smil, The Earth’s Biosphere: Evolution, Dynamics, and Change, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 2002; Sarah Catherine Walpole et al., «The Weight of Nations: An Estimation of Adult Human Biomass», BMC Public Health, 12, 439 (2012), http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/12/439. <<

[2] William T. Jackman, The Development of Transportation in Modern England, Londres, Frank Cass & Co., 1966, pp. 324-327; H. J. Dyos y D. H. Aldcroft, British Transport. An Economic Survey from the Seventeenth Century to the Twentieth, Leicester, Leicester University Press, 1969, pp. 124-131; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19th Century, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1986. <<

[3] Para una discusión detallada de la tranquilidad sin precedentes de las últimas décadas, véanse en particular Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined, Nueva York, Viking, 2011 [hay trad. cast.: Los ángeles que llevamos dentro. El declive de la violencia y sus implicaciones, Barcelona, Paidós, 2012]; Joshua S. Goldstein, Winning the War on War: The Decline of Armed Conflict Worldwide, Nueva York, Dutton, 2011; Gat, War in Human Civilization. <<

[4] «World Report on Violence and Health: Summary, Geneva 2002», World Health Organization, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.who.int/whr/2001/en/whr01_annex_en.pdf. Para tasas de mortalidad en períodos anteriores, véase Lawrence H. Keeley, War before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage, Nueva York, Oxford University Press, 1996. <<

[5] «World Health Report, 2004», World Health Organization, 124, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.who.int/whr/2004/en/report04_en.pdf. <<

[6] Raymond C. Kelly, Warless Societies and the Origin of War, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 2000, p. 21. Véanse también Gat, War in Human Civilization, pp. 129-131; Keeley, War before Civilization. <<

[7] Manuel Eisner, «Modernization, Self-Control and Lethal Violence», British Journal of Criminology, 41, 4 (2001), pp. 618-638; Manuel Eisner, «Long-Term Historical Trends in Violent Crime», Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, 30 (2003), pp. 83-142; «World Report on Violence and Health: Summary, Geneva 2002», World Health Organization, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.who.int/whr/2001/en/whr01_annex_en.pdf; «World Health Report, 2004», World Health Organization, 124, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.who.int/whr/2004/en/report04_en.pdf <<

[8] Walker y Bailey, «Body Counts in Lowland South American Violence», p. 30. <<

19. Y VIVIERON FELICES POR SIEMPRE JAMÁS

[1] Tanto para la psicología como para la bioquímica de la felicidad, las siguientes referencias son buenos puntos de partida: Jonathan Haidt, The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom, Nueva York, Basic Books, 2006 [hay trad. cast.: La hipótesis de la felicidad. La búsqueda de verdades modernas en la sabiduría antigua, Barcelona, Gedisa, 2006]; R. Wright, The Moral Animal: Evolutionary Psychology and Everyday Life, Nueva York, Vintage Books, 1994; M. Csikszentmihalyi, «If We Are So Rich, Why Aren’t We Happy?», American Psychologist, 54, 10 (1999), pp. 821-827; F. A. Huppert, N. Baylis y B. Keverne, eds., The Science of Well-Being, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005; Michael Argyle, The Psychology of Happiness, 2.ª ed., Nueva York Routledge, 2001 [hay trad. cast.: La psicología de la felicidad, Madrid, Alianza, 1992]; Ed Diener, ed., Assessing Well-Being: The Collected Works of Ed Diener, Nueva York, Springer, 2009; Michael Eid y Randy J. Larsen, eds., The Science of Subjective Well-Being, Nueva York, Guilford Press, 2008; Richard A. Easterlin, ed., Happiness in Economics, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2002; Richard Layard, Happiness: Lessons from a New Science, Nueva York, Penguin, 2005 [hay trad. cast.: Felicidad. Lecciones de una nueva ciencia, Madrid, Taurus, 2005]. <<

[2] Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow, Nueva York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011 [hay trad. cast.: Pensar rápido, pensar despacio, Barcelona, Círculo de Lectores, 2013]; Inglehart et al., «Development, Freedom, and Rising Happiness», pp. 278-281. <<

[3] D. M. McMahon, The Pursuit of Happiness: A History from the Greeks to the Present, Londres, Allen Lane, 2006. <<

20. EL FINAL DE HOMO SAPIENS

[1] Keith T. Paige et al., «De Novo Cartilage Generation Using Calcium Alginate-Chondrocyte Constructs», Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 97, 1 (1996), pp. 168-178. <<

[2] David Biello, «Bacteria Transformed into Biofuels Refineries», Scientific American, 27 de enero de 2010, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=bacteria-transformed-into-biofuel-refineries. <<

[3] Gary Walsh, «Therapeutic Insulins and Their Large-Scale Manufacture», Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 67, 2 (2005), pp. 151-159. <<

[4] James G. Wallis et al., «Expression of a Synthetic Antifreeze Protein in Potato Reduces Electrolyte Release at Freezing Temperatures», Plant Molecular Biology, 35, 3 (1997), pp. 323-330. <<

[5] Robert J. Wall et al., «Genetically Enhanced Cows Resist Intramammary Staphylococcus aureus Infection», Nature Biotechnology, 23, 4 (2005), pp. 445-451. <<

[6] Liangxue Lai et al., «Generation of Cloned Transgenic Pigs Rich in Omega-3 Fatty Acids», Nature Biotechnology, 24, 4 (2006), pp. 435-436. <<

[7] Ya-Ping Tang et al., «Genetic Enhancement of Learning and Memory in Mice», Nature, 401 (1999), pp. 63-69. <<

[8] Zoe R. Donaldson y Larry J. Young, «Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Neurogenetics of Sociality», Science, 322, 5903 (2008), pp. 900-904; Zoe R. Donaldson, «Production of Germline Transgenic Prairie Voles (Microtus ochrogaster) Using Lentiviral Vectors», Biology of Reproduction, 81, 6 (2009), pp. 1.189-1.195. <<

[9]Terri Pous, «Siberian Discovery Could Bring Scientists Closer to Cloning Woolly Mammoth», Time, 17 de septiembre de 2012, consultado el 19 de febrero de 2013; Pasqualino Loi et al., «Biological time machines: a realistic approach for cloning an extinct mammal», Endangered Species Research, 14 (2011), pp. 227-233; Leon Huynen, Craig D. Millar y David M. Lambert, «Resurrecting ancient animal genomes: The extinct moa and more», Bioessays, 34 (2012), pp. 661-669. <<

[10] Nicholas Wade, «Scientists in Germany Draft Neanderthal Genome», New York Times, 12 de febrero de 2009, consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/13/science/13neanderthal.html?_r=2&ref=science Zack Zorich, «Should We Clone Neanderthals?», Archaeology, 63, 2 (2009), consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2010, http://www.archaeology.org/1003/etc/neanderthals.html <<

[11] Robert H. Waterston et al., «Initial Sequencing and Comparative Analysis of the Mouse Genome», Nature, 420, 6915 (2002), p. 520. <<

Ir a la siguiente página