Russian Identity . Дипломная (ВКР). Английский.
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In my research, I will study identity of Russia, its national
identity and their meaning for international politics. I also aim to show that
identity is important in state construction.
First, I would like to mention that an issue of identity is
quite important as it provides certain characteristics of state. It describes
state and resolves questions of state identification. It characterizes state in
the context of other states. Besides, it constructs an idea of state.
Hopf states that identities are necessary in international
politics in order to ensure some level of predictability and order. A world
without identities is a world of chaos, a world of uncertainty. Identities
perform necessary functions in a society: they tell you and others who you are
and they tell you who others are. A state understands others according to the
identity it attributes to them, and reproduces its own identity (Hopf 1998:
174).
In constructivism, identity is an important creative factor.
Identity plays an important role in the world politics. Identities are produced
by interactions, institutions, norms and cultures. Identities are important for
the construction of the state (Wendt 1992).
Understanding how identities are constructed, what norms and
practices accompany their reproduction, and how they construct each other is a
major part of the constructivist research program. Constructivism assumes, a
priori, that identities are potentially part of the constitutive practices of
the state, and so, productive of its actions at home and abroad. Different
states behave differently towards other states, based on the identities of each
(Hopf 1998, 174).
Identity of state in international politics is quite
important as it characterizes state internally and internationally. Every
identity brings in itself a certain knowledge about the state, its internal and
external issues, as well as state behavior. Russian state has its peculiar role
in the world. It is a huge power, which has it's specific national identity and
which occupies special position in the world order. To see Russia's development
in history, it has undergone many changes, and during the history the state
identity of Russia was formed. Dramatic changes, which characterized all the
history of Russian Empire were significant and reflected a strong nature of
Russian state. Its position in the world order defines Russian state as a
global power.
On the other hand, national identity of Russia is very strong.
It is based on hundreds years of history, culture and traditions. National
identity together with language, traditions, culture, is main characteristic of
Russian nation and forms the basis of its self-definition. Russian national
identity has therefore certain spiritual and materialistic soil which includes
also culture and politics of state. National identity of Russia has main
identification character.
Russian identity is very unique in Western civilization. It's
peculiarities lie within historical development and its specific features in
comparison to Western civilization in general. Russian identity has its own
value and is motivated by internal factors, as well as by external factors, for
example in the context of the EU, by other neighboring states and world
politics. As far as we go further, Russia becomes more developed and
interconnected in the world and West. In the context of constructivism, it will
sound as a state construction, and a theoretically approved fact.
In case of geopolitics, Russia is in strategic position, in
the centre of Eurasia. It is divided with Ural mountains into European and
Asian parts. It is a country with huge natural resources, including oil, gas
and gold.
Another important issue is Russian Orthodoxy, which
influences Russian state and culture, as well as it forms the Russian identity
from its side. Phrases like ”81% of Russians identify themselves as Orthodox”,
”To be Russian is to be Orthodox”, ”The special contribution of Orthodoxy to
the history of Russia is the development of Russia´s spiritually” are significant.
Special status of Orthodoxy over all other religious traditions in Russia is
stated. On the other hand the alternatives to the future of Orthodox church are
presented, for example, removing the church from the direct participation in
politics, as well as keeping the state separated from the church. Thus the
place of the church and other religious organizations is challenged in Russia.
The search for Russian national identity is an important
trend. Russians have easily identified with standard, dominant Russian cultures
- be they Russian Orthodox, Russian Imperial or Russian Soviet. It was other
peoples of the empire, in particular Moslem and Western Christian (Roman
Catholic and Protestant), who had problems. This is why during hundreds years
Russians did not have very strong ethnic identity, whereas their many
non-Russian neighbors did. However, this has been changing lately (Ponarin
1999).
Russian national identity has been an important issue
especially during the rule of Putin. There is a certain trend towards
strengthening a prestige and national self-identity of state. The problem of
identity of Russia has been quite actual during the last 15 years and it is
connected with the problem of balance of power. New identity of Russia is
formed, but there is some uncertainty. Russia is undergoing important changes
in politics and it is considered to be a powerful, but quite unpredictable
nation.
Official point of view by Igor Ivanov (2001) is that Russia's
foreign policy is based on national interests rather than political ideology.
He says, Russia believes that the settlement of international problems on a
collective basis in strict accordance with the rules of international law will
become a fundamental principle of Russian system. The scope of Russia's
activities is expanding to include international cooperation aimed at
responding to new global threats and challenges (Ivanov 2001: 12-13).
By reflecting its interests in the world politics, Russian
state constitutes to the world order of states. It has its specific identity
and behavior, therefore it signifies its important role in the world and makes
a commitment to world political composition and behavior. Second, ideas and behavior
are important in shaping International Relations, and Russia behaves
accordingly to international rules.
In my paper, I am going to study the identity of Russia. I
will mostly concentrate on how Russia formed its identity in the past and in
the present, and I will question, why it is so important to identify Russia as
a nation. I will look closer on Russia's history. Besides, I will make a brief
description between the view of Russian identity introduced by Russian, as well
as Western scholars, who reflect ideas about Russian identity, and I will
examine these issues.
Question of identity is quite important because it touches
historical, geopolitical and other aspects. Therefore, I will consider these
aspects and place them as the most important in the formation of Russian
identity. I will use a theory of constructivism to show, how the identity is
formed in the aspect of states formation and in the wider context, including
the identity of Russia as a peculiar phenomenon in history. My paper will also
include the brief observation of the history of Russia, of Russian identity
nowadays and the analysis of the official position of Russia in politics. I
will therefore examine national specifics, as well as traditions of Russia.
Formation of Russian identity is a challenging topic for me. Besides, I will
base my research on other sources of formation of national identity, including
views of most well-known Russian politicians.
I see the subject of my study up to date, because of the
search of Russian identity nowadays. Due to some changes in the internal and
external politics of Russia, it brought some changes in the order of states, as
well as it influenced the identity of Russia, the way how the other states see
Russian nation, and how the identity in Russia is formed.
I find it an interesting topic because of the constructivist
theoretical implications. It is important to see Russia in the context of state
formation, in the context of other states, and to see which role does Russia
plays in the world politics. It is also important to understand the process,
which determines the manner in which Russia interacts. It is interesting,
because throughout the history, geopolitics determined Russia's stand in the
world, determined its behavior, as well as provided a good economical ground
for development.
In my research, the main emphasis is on the
method, which I am going to use. The main aim is to see how it can be applied
in my work, and what generalizations it may bring with it. The empirical
method which I am going to use in my research is generally meant as the
collection of a large amount of data on which to base a theory or derive a
conclusion in science. I will use this research method as a class of
research methods in which empirical observations or data are
collected in order to answer particular research questions. I will start with
some priori theories, which I will develop to try to explain and/or predict
what happens in the real world.(Moody, 2002) The purpose of the research is to
test the theory and possibly refine it. The research questions that I will ask
are concerned mainly on what the identity of Russia is, and how it is viewed by
Western and Russian scholars. I will define a theory of constructivism, and
apply it to my research question to prove its validity.
I tried to observe some material which explains the main
theory on my topic. For example, according to Manheim, the most effective way
to find an accurate answer to a research question is to employ established
methods of empirical research to investigate the relationships we see in the
world. Transforming our general research question into one or several specific
ones requires developing some plausible explanations for what we
observe.(Manheim 2002:14) One of the first problems in research is to devise
ways of getting from the abstract level of our questions to some concrete
observation that will allow us to answer them (ibid.:51). When we attempt to
create possible explanations for events, we are theorizing or developing a
theory. Theory building is the first stage in the research process and why it
is essential that we understand the relationship between theory and research
(ibid.:15). In my paper, I will question some theories, for example,
constructivism, and on its basis, I will try to explain some developments of
Russian state and identity. The theory which I am going to develop is the one
which will seek the answer to the question: Is there Russian identity? What is
Russian identity? What are the values of Russian identity? Where did it come
from? My theoretical part will be discussed later on in the work. I aim to show
the significance of the research question from the view of IR theory,
constructivism. Therefore, I will explain some issues on behalf of my concern
of a theory, and will write on the topic of construction of an identity from a
theoretical perspective. Later on, I will see how the issue is seen in the eyes
of scholars and politicians, as well as I will apply theoretical views on the
issues of Russian identity and nation-building, answering the question of
construction of identity.
The quest for useful theory begins with the decisions we
make about the building blocks of theories: concepts. I will use concepts to
observe my theory and give a concrete analysis of my work. I will base my study
primarily on concepts, which will represent some idea. First, since we are
involved in empirical inquiry the concept must refer to phenomena that are at
least potentially observable. This does not mean that all concepts must refer
to directly observable things. Some of the most useful concepts in the social
sciences refer to properties we cannot observe directly. (Manheim 2002: 22).
Useful concepts have theoretical import. A concept has theoretical import when
it is related to enough other concepts in the theory that it plays an essential
role in the explanation of observed events (ibid.:23). My concept of this work
is to try to explain main questions of Russian identity, how it was
established, and how it seen nowadays by Russian and Western scholars, as well
as to see how this concept was developed and discussed by Russian politicians
in time in Russia, and what kind of perspective I see on the basis of their
ideas. My concept is to give significance to the issue of Russian identity, to
enlighten it and to give my own ideas in the work. The most significant part is
to discuss how the idea is constructed, and to analyze those parts of material,
which have been presented. I will try to do a research based on the material,
which can be very useful in creating certain concepts and theories, and I will
later try to explain, why these, or that sources I found the most valuable and
interesting.
I will use a theory testing which is at the center of the
research process. Manheim says that because theories are generally developed
from bits of knowledge about actual relationships, the tasks of theory testing
are essentially those of using the theory to formulate some expectations about
other relationships we have not observed and then checking to see whether
actual relationships we have already observed, because showing that the theory
leads us to expect the very relationships the theory was built to explain
would be no test at all. (Manheim 2002: 25) I will use my research material to analyze
all the distinctive features of my research question, and will try to put them
in order which is will describe all the phenomena of a theory. By doing this, I
will observe all the material which is important in my research question, and
will make conclusions of those parts of my work which will be the most interesting
in categorizing and framing a theory.
Theories, as sets of concepts, assumptions, and propositions,
are never finally proved or disproved (ibid, 2002: 26). Theory elaboration is
based largely on a process of comparing hypothesized conditions with reality
and, once we have results, modifying our theory so that hypotheses that can be
derived from it are more and more consistent with what we observe. (ibid.) I
will have a bunch of considerations in my work, which I will choose to be the
most significant ones, the ones that will reflect my research question, and the
ones that I will consider important. However, I will try to consider those
parts of my work which I will later use for theory elaboration, and I will
compare theories to describe the phenomenon of Russian identity in the real
world.
Selection of an appropriate research
method is critical to success of any research project, and must be driven by
the research question and the state of knowledge in the area being studied. In
general, a combination of research methods may be most effective in achieving a
particular research objective.(Moody 2002) In my work, the most important thing
will be distinguishing, how the theory works, and how it can be used in my
paper to explain phenomenon. The empirical research method in my work will
include the research of materials from books, and Internet. I decided not to do
an interview type of work, because all the generalizations made during the
interviews were already analyzed by scholars before me, and I will present
these views on the basis of their researches. However, I have chosen, in my
opinion, the most significant observations, and views, to be able to describe
the phenomenon of Russian identity from the angle which I find interesting.
In my work, I will use positivism, as well as
interpretivism, or the qualitative approach, is a way to gain insights through
discovering meanings by improving our comprehension of the whole. The
underlying assumption of interpretivism is that the whole needs to be examined
in order to understand a phenomena. Interpretivism is critical of the
positivism because it seeks to collect and analyze data from parts of a
phenomena and, in so doing, positivism can miss important aspects of a
comprehensive understanding of the whole. Interpretivism proposes that there
are multiple realities, not single realities of phenomena, and that these
realities can differ across time and place.
From constructivist’s point of view,
identities are necessary in international politics in order to ensure some
level of predictability and order. A world without identities is a world of
chaos, a world of uncertainty. Identities perform necessary functions in a
society: they tell you and others who you are and they tell you who others are.
A state understands others according to the identity it attributes to them, and
reproduces its own identity. (Hopf, 1998:174). The way Russia sees itself in
the world order is a way in which the state is recognised. It plays on the
world stage as a power which has its word to say in the world politics. Identity
of Russia produced during the history has been re-valued and judged by
politicians. Formation of Russian identity on the world scale is state
behaviour. The way it behaves is very important for keeping the world peace and
security. Relations with foreign countries is part of behaviour of Russian
state. From the perspective of Constructivists, Behaviour, Interests and
Identities of the state interact largely with Ideas, Meaning and the Rules in
the context of state system. Therefore, what Russian state produces in the
context of its political and economic system, and which rules and ideas it
applies to the behaviour and interest of state, it forms largely an identity of
Russia.
At the same time, Russian identity has been
formed throughout the years of history and historical change. Russian state
established itself as a strong power, which role in politics was significantly
made-up in history, and gained its continuity in Russian modern state. Russian
identity has been produced via many factors, for example Russian people,
culture, language, historical events, etc. Its great variety of Russian
identity as such has been underlined by historians in Russia and the West.
A state identity is formed in a system of
states. Hopf assumes that constructivism, while expecting to uncover
differences, identities and multiple understandings, still assumes that it can
specify a set of conditions under which one can expect to see one identity or
another (Hopf, 1998). In this respect, I would propose that throughout the
history of Russia, it has formed its behaviour, interests, and actions in the
world. It has gone through many changes. On every phase of change, it has
formed its position, and therefore Russian identity in the world system. For
example, identity of Soviet Union was understood by a Western world as Russia
during the existence of the USSR, despite the fact that the Soviet Union was
trying hard not to have that identity. European identities were incomplete
until they encountered peoples in the Americas and India respectively. The
necessity of difference with an other to produce one’s own identity is
important (Hopf, ibid.). On the other hand, to see the identity of Russia more
clearly, we must look on its place in the world system. To say that it is
Europe, and to choose the way to analyse it from the European perspective, is a
way to get to know Russia in common world system. To see it from different
perspectives, it means to accept that Russia has its own specific roots which
distinguish it from European states. To know that it has deep roots in history
and culture, is to make an understanding of what Russia is itself, to recognise
its own national self-identity.
Constructivism assumes that the selves or
identities of states are a variable; they likely depend on historical,
cultural, political, and social context (Hopf, ibid.) Constructivism proposes a
way of understanding how nationalism, ethnicity, race, gender, religion, and
other intersubjectively understood communities, are each involved in an account
of global politics. In case of Russia, these factors are very broad. Russia is
a multinational state, with the whole variety of ethnicities, religions,
communities, etc. Identity gives Russia its variety and a certain superiority.
An equally important part of the
intersubjective nature of international relations is the operation of actors
within generally accepted patterns for behavior known as norms. Norms define
the context in which the action or decision is being made. In
constructivist model, norms provide definition to the theoretical anarchy
involved in interstate relations and, as reinforced by compliance in action,
will help produce predictability and order particularly between actors whose
identities include shared norms. Understanding of the identity, norms and
context for the other actor or actors involved. Norms provide the
closest approximation to what classical theorists call structure.
Constructivist reasoning accounts for and depends on information and the power
of discourse for validity. Communicated ideas and information largely define
identity. Change in a system of identity and norms can be difficult and slow,
but the rising power and availability of information clearly demonstrates that
change can occur [1] .
Russia strictly follows the norms, which states oblige to follow. These norms
are compounds of state norms inside of the country, and they work also on the
international level. They are usually predictable, sometimes not, which
worsens Russian attitude in the world system. These are stable norms, which
every day signify the same and work for the enrichment of Russian state. When
sometimes norms were not followed as in the Soviet Union, Russia has
experienced a full number of sanctions, put on by international institutions.
Therefore, for the last ten years , Russia has been a good follower of
internationally advised rules and was flexible to all restrictions.
Fundamental to constructivism is the proposition that human
beings are social beings, and they are human for social relations. Social
relations make or construct people-ourselves-into the kind of beings that we
are. We make the world that it is. [2] (Onuf,
1998: 59) Constructivism holds that people make society, and society makes
people. This is a continuous, two-way process. Social rules make the process by
which people and society constitute each other continuous and reciprocal.
Rules make it possible for us to act on behalf of social constructions. Any
stable pattern of rules, institutions, and unintended consequences gives
society a structure, recognizable as such to any observer.(ibid.: 59) Rules
make agents out of individual human beings by giving them opportunities to act
upon the world. These acts have material and social consequences, some of them
intended and some not.(ibid.: 64) Statements can fully be applied to Russian
state. The number of people who live in Russia is very big, therefore, I may
say that Russian people as well as Russian ethnicities make up the identity of
Russia, as well as society. Russian people have a big say in politics of the
state. Every Presidential elections up to 80 percent of people give their vote
for a new president of Russia, and show respectfully their partly involvement
into the politics of state. People are what makes societies work, and people
create their own politics. Social rules as well as rules on behalf of which
people behave fully depend on the policies of state, and people are the ones
who make this behavior happen. Russia is nowadays a well-structured society, and
all the rules applied to people can be recognized as given in a certain
structure to a mechanism of rule inside of society. These new rules are quite
important in a sense that they bring order to a given society, and they are a
source to avoid chaos.
Institutions make people into agents and constitute
environment within which agents conduct themselves rationally. While it is
always possible, we more commonly think of agents as operationing in an
institutional context that gives them at least some opportunities for choice.
(Onuf; 1998: 61) Institutions such as balance of power, spheres of influence,
and treaties are simple because observers can easily pick them out of an
institutional environment characterized by a large number of linked rules and
related practices. Agents act as observers when they recognize any institutions
as such , no matter how complex it is. Scholars often think of international
regimes as something that they are alone can see, while agents can see only the
simpler institutions making up the regime. International regimes are hard to
see because the rules connecting the institutions that make them up tend to be
informal (ibid: 71). International society is heteronomously ruled because
states exercise their independence under the principle of sovereignty and under
a number of commitment-rules granting them rights and duties with respect to
each other. One state’s independence is a limit on every other’s, and all
states´ agents accept the unintended consequences that result from their
many individual choices. (ibid.: 77) Rules and given to Russia a constitution –
norms, they provide a basis of sovereignty in Russia. Russia acts in the world
on behalf of its democratic system and norms and rules in the society. Anarchy
is a condition of rule in which rules are not directly responsible for the way
agents conduct their relations.(Onuf; 1998: 63) All arguments work in the
modern Russian state. People in Russian state act on behalf of their needs,
and are obliged to follow rules in a society. People recognize institutions,
and the interdependence which they find, is fully recognized by them. Russian
state is an independent state, and its interaction with other states is fully
based on respect of sovereignty. If sovereignty is being broken, one can say
that the state is weak. There has been the age of Russian perestroika, when
anarchy of power was so much in conflict in politics of Russia and people’s
minds. However, this change occurred , and showed its fruitful results in the
new evolving Russian democratic state.
Constructivist position on relation of agents to structures
is that they each constitute the other. Simultaneously, agents and structure
enable and constrain each other. Relation of constructivism to structuration is
complex. Constructivism debt to structuration is plain enough, but the origin
and nature of the differences are important. Rules are central to this process
because they make people active participants in society, and they give any
society its distinctive character (or structure). Rules define agents in terms
of structures, and structures in terms of agents. (Gould; 1998: 80) Agents are,
or consist of individuals whose acts materially affect the world. Rules
constituting a society define the conditions under which individual may
intervene in the world. Rules make individuals into agents by enabling them to
act upon the world in which they find themselves. These acts have material and
social effects; they make the world what is materially and socially.(ibid.: 81)
The rules, due to which Russia lives, are the international rules, which can be
applied to citizens of Russian state. Russia is following international codes
of rules, and applies these rules to the institutions, as well as citizens of
Russia. International rules are difficult to follow, and Russia used to have
some problems, due to the difference in the codes of justice. People are those
who make it all happen. Citizens are the ones to establish their own rules,
and the ones to obey them.
I.2 International
Social Structure
Wendt offers the rival claim that state identity is
endogenous to structured interaction among states. The structural of state
interaction, systemic factors such as interdependence and the transnational
convergence of domestic values, and even the manipulation of symbols in the
strategic practice of rational agents all contribute to the formation of
collective identities.(Gould; 1998: 102) He approaches that the structures of
international politics constrain state behavior; the second argues that
international structures affect both behavior and identity. In our case, it is
both, Russian state is influenced by international structures.
Identity is shaped by structural constrains and incentives.
Such arguments de-emphasize the ways the behavior of agents within structures
shapes identity. It pays less attention than it might to the active role people
and nations play in the fabrication of their own political identities.(Gould;
1998: 103) Constructivism holds that social structure, by itself cannot serve
as the basis for a complete account of identity. Agents and their behavior must
also be considered. Speaking is doing, and constructivists maintain that social
meanings, institutions, and structures are constructed out of practical linguistic
rules.(Kowert; 1998: 104) Here, one should say that people are the ones to
create their own world, and the politicians who make it all happen right. Here,
the age
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