Roman Sx

Roman Sx
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Attitudes and behaviors towards sex in ancient Rome
Newlyweds [466] attended by a servant: the bride remains fully clothed and demur (Casa della Farnesina, Rome, c. 19 BC)
The accompanying painting depicts the bride's new sexual agency.
For the legal aspects, see Adultery in ancient Rome .

^ The tabella was a small, portable painting, as distinguished from an architecturally permanent wall painting.

^ For example, Agatha of Sicily and Febronia of Nisibis ; Sebastian P. Brock and Susan Ashbrook Harvey, introduction to Holy Women of the Syrian Orient (University of California Press, 1987), pp. 24–25; Harvey, "Women in Early Byzantine Hagiography: Reversing the Story," in That Gentle Strength: Historical Perspectives on Women in Christianity (University Press of Virginia, 1990), pp. 48–50. The accounts of breast mutilation occur in Christian sources and iconography, not in Roman art and literature.

^ See Flamen Dialis and rex sacrorum .

^ See also " Roman prostitution and religion ".

^ For instance, in the mid-3rd century BC, Naevius uses the word stuprum in his Bellum Punicum for the military disgrace of desertion or cowardice; Fantham , p. 117.

^ Referring to varicocele .

^ The sex of the child, however, is not determined by the gender of the parent whose traits dominate.

^ "... Kronos is the same as Khronos : for as much as the mythographers offer different versions of Saturn [= Kronos] in their tales, the physical scientists restore him to a certain likeness to the truth. They say that he cut off the genitals of his father, Heaven , and that when these were cast into the sea Venus was engendered, taking the name Aphrodite from the foam [Greek aphros ] from which she formed. They interpret this to mean that when chaos existed, time did not, since time is a fixed measurement computed from the rotation of the heavens. Hence Kronos, who as I said is Khronos, is thought to have been born from heaven itself. Because the seeds for engendering all things (semina rerum omnium) after heaven flowed down from heaven, and because all the elements that fill the world took their start from those seeds, when the world was complete in all its parts and members, the process of bringing forth seeds from heaven for the creation of the elements came to an end at a fixed moment in time, since a full complement of elements had by then been created. The capacity for engendering living things in an unbroken sequence of reproduction was transferred from water to Venus, so that all things would thenceforth come into being through the intercourse of male and female": Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.8.6–8, Loeb Classical Library translation by Robert A. Kaster.

^ See further discussion of how sexual activity defines the free, respectable citizen from the slave or "un-free" person below under Master-slave relations and Pleasure and infamy .

^ Until the late Republic, a bath house probably offered women a separate wing or facility, or had a schedule that allowed women and men to bathe at different times. From the late Republic until the rise of Christian dominance in the later Empire, there is clear evidence of mixed bathing. Some scholars have thought that only lower-class women bathed with men, or those such as entertainers or prostitutes who were infames , but Clement of Alexandria observed that women of the highest social classes could be seen naked at the baths. Hadrian prohibited mixed bathing, but the ban seems not to have endured. In short, customs varied not only by time and place, but by facility; see Garrett G. Fagan, Bathing in Public in the Roman World (University of Michigan Press, 1999, 2002), pp. 26–27.

^ In Roman Gaul, the Celtic god identified with the Roman Mercury is sometimes represented triphallically; see for instance Miranda Green , Symbol and Image in Celtic Religious Art (Routledge, 1989), p. 184. In The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 168, Carlin A. Barton associates polyphallic tintinnabula with the Medusa's head and other grotesques.

^ Breasts are never ubera in Ovid's Amores , but are ubera throughout the Metamorphoses : at 3.31 (metaphorically); 4.324; 10.392; 9.358 ( materna ... ubera , "motherly breasts"); 7.321 and 6.342 (lactantia ubera , "milk-producing breasts"); 15.117 and 472. Uber (singular) or ubera is used for animals by Ovid, Ars Amatoria 1.350 (the udder of a cow) and 2.375 (the teats of lactating dogs); by Horace, Sermones 1.1.110, Odes 2.19.10, 4.4.14 and 4.15.5, and elsewhere; by Tibullus, for sheep in 1.3.45; by Propertius, 2.34b.

^ Staples , p. 164, citing Norman Bryson, "Two Narratives of Rape in the Visual Arts: Lucretia and the Sabine Women," in Rape (Blackwell, 1986), p. 199. Augustine's interpretation of the rape of Lucretia (in City of God 1.19) has generated a substantial body of criticism, starting with Machiavelli 's satire. In Augustine of Hippo: A Biography (Faber, 1967), Peter Brown characterized this section of Augustine's work as his most vituperative attack on Roman ideals of virtue. See also Carol J. Adams and Marie M. Fortune, Violence against Women and Children: A Christian Theological Sourcebook (Continuum, 1995), p. 219ff.; Melissa M. Matthes, The Rape of Lucretia and the Founding of Republics (Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), p. 68ff. (also on Machiavelli); Virginia Burrus, Saving Shame: Martyrs, Saints, and Other Abject Subjects (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), p. 125ff.; Amy Greenstadt, Rape and the Rise of the Author: Gendering Intention in Early Modern England (Ashgate, 2009), p. 71; Melissa E. Sanchez, Erotic Subjects: The Sexuality of Politics in Early Modern English Literature (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 93ff. Augustine defines sexual integrity (pudicitia) as a purely spiritual quality that physical defilement cannot taint; as indicated throughout this article, the Romans viewed rape and other forms of stuprum within a political context as crimes against the citizen's liberty.

^ Martial (6.39) observed that the power of the paterfamilias was so absolute that having sex with his own son was technically not a transgression ( nefas ) , as noted by John Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century (University of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 67.

^ The abolition of debt bondage was facilitated by the spread of chattel slavery for agricultural labor; thus during the period of Roman conquest and expansionism on the Italian peninsula, the distinction arises between a Roman citizen with rights and an "Italian" who might be enslaved; see John W. Rich, "Tiberius Gracchus, Land and Manpower," in Crises and the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Nijmegen, June 20–24, 2006) (Brill, 2007), p. 160.

^ In the similar story from Valerius Maximus, a young man named Titus Veturius, whose father was a bankrupt Roman magistrate , had placed himself in slavery with Publius Plotius, who had attempted to seduce him ( stuprare ) . When Veturius refused, Plotius whipped him. Veturius then complained to the consuls , who took the complaint to the senate . Plotius was jailed. See Cantarella , pp. 104–105

^ Capricorn , Aquarius , Taurus or Cancer .

— Jacob Neusner , Approaches to Ancient Judaism, New Series: Religious and Theological Studies (1993), p. 149, Scholars Press.

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Sexual attitudes and behaviors in ancient Rome are indicated by art , literature , and inscriptions , and to a lesser extent by archaeological remains such as erotic artifacts and architecture . It has sometimes been assumed that "unlimited sexual license" was characteristic of ancient Rome. [2] Verstraete and Provençal opine that this perspective was simply a Christian interpretation: "The sexuality of the Romans has never had good press in the West ever since the rise of Christianity. In the popular imagination and culture, it is synonymous with sexual license and abuse." [3]

But sexuality was not excluded as a concern of the mos maiorum , the traditional social norms that affected public, private, and military life. [4] Pudor , "shame, modesty", was a regulating factor in behavior, [5] as were legal strictures on certain sexual transgressions in both the Republican and Imperial periods. [6] The censors — public officials who determined the social rank of individuals—had the power to remove citizens from the senatorial or equestrian order for sexual misconduct, and on occasion did so. [7] [8] The mid-20th-century sexuality theorist Michel Foucault regarded sex throughout the Greco-Roman world as governed by restraint and the art of managing sexual pleasure. [9]

Roman society was patriarchal (see paterfamilias ), and masculinity was premised on a capacity for governing oneself and others of lower status, not only in war and politics, but also in sexual relations. [10] Virtus , "virtue", was an active masculine ideal of self-discipline, related to the Latin word for "man", vir . The corresponding ideal for a woman was pudicitia , often translated as chastity or modesty, but a more positive and even competitive personal quality that displayed both her attractiveness and self-control. [11] Roman women of the upper classes were expected to be well educated, strong of character, and active in maintaining their family's standing in society. [12] But with extremely few exceptions, surviving Latin literature preserves the voices only of educated male Romans on the subject of sexuality. Visual art was created by those of lower social status and of a greater range of ethnicity, but was tailored to the taste and inclinations of those wealthy enough to afford it, including, in the Imperial era , former slaves. [13]

Some sexual attitudes and behaviors in ancient Roman culture differ markedly from those in later Western societies . [14] [15] Roman religion promoted sexuality as an aspect of prosperity for the state, and individuals might turn to private religious practice or " magic " for improving their erotic lives or reproductive health. Prostitution was legal, public, and widespread. [16] "Pornographic" paintings were featured among the art collections in respectable upperclass households. [17] It was considered natural and unremarkable for men to be sexually attracted to teen-aged youths of both sexes, and pederasty was condoned as long as the younger male partner was not a freeborn Roman. " Homosexual " and " heterosexual " did not form the primary dichotomy of Roman thinking about sexuality, and no Latin words for these concepts exist. [18] No moral censure was directed at the man who enjoyed sex acts with either women or males of inferior status, as long as his behaviors revealed no weaknesses or excesses, nor infringed on the rights and prerogatives of his masculine peers. While perceived effeminacy was denounced, especially in political rhetoric, sex in moderation with male prostitutes or slaves was not regarded as improper or vitiating to masculinity, if the male citizen took the active and not the receptive role. Hypersexuality , however, was condemned morally and medically in both men and women. Women were held to a stricter moral code, [19] and same-sex relations between women are poorly documented, but the sexuality of women is variously celebrated or reviled throughout Latin literature. In general the Romans had more fluid gender boundaries than the ancient Greeks . [20]

A late-20th-century paradigm analyzed Roman sexuality in terms of a "penetrator–penetrated" binary model , however this model has limitations, especially in regard to expressions of sexuality among individual Romans. [21] Even the relevance of the word " sexuality " to ancient Roman culture has been disputed, [22] [23] [24] but in the absence of any other label for "the cultural interpretation of erotic experience", the term continues to be used. [25]

Ancient literature pertaining to Roman sexuality falls mainly into four categories: legal texts; medical texts; poetry; and political discourse. [26] Forms of expression with lower cultural cachet in antiquity—such as comedy , satire , invective , love poetry, graffiti, magic spells , inscriptions , and interior decoration—have more to say about sex than elevated genres, such as epic and tragedy . Information about the sex lives of the Romans is scattered in historiography , oratory , philosophy, and writings on medicine , agriculture , and other technical topics. [27] Legal texts point to behaviors Romans wanted to regulate or prohibit, without necessarily reflecting what people actually did or refrained from doing. [28]

Major Latin authors whose works contribute significantly to an understanding of Roman sexuality include:

Ovid lists a number of writers known for salacious material whose works are now lost. [29] Greek sex manuals and "straightforward pornography" [30] were published under the name of famous heterai (courtesans), and circulated in Rome. The robustly sexual Milesiaca of Aristides was translated by Sisenna , one of the praetors of 78 BC. Ovid calls the book a collection of misdeeds (crimina) , and says the narrative was laced with dirty jokes. [31] After the Battle of Carrhae , the Parthians were reportedly shocked to find the Milesiaca in the baggage of Marcus Crassus 's officers. [32]

Erotic art, especially as preserved in Pompeii and Herculaneum , is a rich if not unambiguous source; some images contradict sexual preferences stressed in literary sources and may be intended to provoke laughter or challenge conventional attitudes. [33] Everyday objects such as mirrors and serving vessels might be decorated with erotic scenes; on Arretine ware , these range from "elegant amorous dalliance" to explicit views of the penis entering the vagina. [34] Erotic paintings were found in the most respectable houses of the Roman nobility , as Ovid notes:

Just as venerable figures of men, painted by the hand of an artist, are resplendent in our houses, so too there is a small painting (tabella) [n 1] in some spot which depicts various couplings and sexual positions : just as Telamonian Ajax sits with an expression that declares his anger, and the barbarian mother ( Medea ) has crime in her eyes, so too a wet Venus dries her dripping hair with her fingers and is viewed barely covered by the maternal waters. [35]

The pornographic tabella and the erotically charged
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