Реферат: Marx Essay Research Paper As stated before

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As stated before, the key classes in the capitalist mode of production
are the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, or capitalists and landless wage
recognizes that there are other classes, the fundamental class division is
the exploiter and the exploited. The bourgeoisie derive their class position
own productive wealth. It is not their high income that makes them
they own the means of production. For example, the inputs necessary for
machines, etc. The ability of workers to work (labor power) is in itself a
bought for the least cost to be used at will by the capitalist. In addition,
product and will always pocket the difference between the value of the labor
product – referred to by Marx as ’surplus value’ – purely by virtue of his
rights also allow the capitalist the control of the process of production and
proletariat in contrast, owns no means of production.
Because of this exploitation, Marx viewed the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
deep and unavoidable conflict. As capitalism expanded, the conflict would
as the condition of the workers became worse. Over time, some members of the
would come to understand their unfair position and would begin to communicate
This would enable them to organize and overthrow the capitalist system. The
pave the way for a new socialist system that would abolish private ownership
production. This forms the basis of Marx’s theory of class, and with further
complexities will present themselves.
This two class model is not Marx’s only use of the word ‘class’. He uses the
economic groups, and particularly of the petty or petite bourgeoisie and the
groups seem to make the neat division of the Communist Manifesto
groups obviously merge into bourgeoisie and the proletariat according to how
employ or how much land they own. Marx even foresaw, with increased use of
the increase of service industries, the advent of a new middle class. This
The first concerns the complications of social stratification in relation to
In the fragment on ‘three great classes of modern society’ in Capital III,
England, where the economic structure is "most highly and classically
intermediate strata even here obliterate lines of demarcation
observation does not fit easily with the idea of an increasing polarization
between ‘two great classes’, Cole explains how Marx:
regard[ed] the blurring of class divisions as a matter of secondary
in shaping the course of particular phases and incidents of the fundamental
but incapable of altering its essential character or its ultimate outcome.
run the forces making for polarisation were bound to come into play more and
difficulties of Capitalism increased: so that the decisive class-struggle
and proletarians could be delayed, but by no means averted or changed in its
character by the emergence of any new class.4
Even so, Cole asks for a ‘critique’ of Marx in light of todays circumstances,
The second question concerns the situation and development of two principal
capitalist society, bourgeoisie and proletariat. In The 18th Brumaire of
gave this negative definition of a fully constituted class:
In so far as millions of families live under economic conditions of existence
their mode of life, their interests and their culture from those of the other
them in hostile opposition to the latter, they form a class. In so far as
local interconnection among these small-holding peasants, and the identity of
interests begets no community, no national bond and no political organisation
In the Poverty of Philosophy, describing the emergence of the working class,
Economic conditions had first transformed the mass of the people of the
workers. The combination of capital has created for this mass a common
common interests. This mass is thus already a class as against capital, but
itself. In the struggle, of which we have noted only a few phases, this mass
united, and constitutes itself as a class for itself. The interests it
Most Marxists have recognized, that in the case of the working class, the
’socialist’ or ‘revolutionary’ consciousness poses problems which require
thorough study. ‘Class interest’ itself is no longer conceived, as it was in
objective and unambiguous ’social fact’, but rather as having a sense which
interaction and discussion out of the experiences of everyday life and the
This is further illustrated by Bottomore’s belief that an investigation into
of social classes’ would have to attend to three problems. First, the
structure, and especially for the polarization of classes, of the rapid
the size of the surplus, and the concomitant growth of the middle
how Marx defined the middle class, are the individuals who ‘live from’
‘assist in the realization and distribution of the surplus’. Marx foresaw the
middle class, and as a result, the declining number of working class. This
strengthen the bourgeois making the transformation to a classless society
Marx’s own analysis, Bottomore says that the transition might not occur at
type of society unlike the socialist society emerging from capitalism. Or,
about differently, from what Marx predicted, resulting in the classless
social conflict that would then bring about the breakdown of capitalism and
socialist society remains unclear, and is not discussed by Marx."8
The second problem concerns the ‘various cultural and political influences’
factor in the evolution of the revolutionary class consciousness. Marx, in
emphasizes positive influences for this development such as: introduction of
(resulting in the displacement of workers to further the revolution), the
advent of the factory (resulting in concentration of workers creating a
consciousness)9 But also negative influences such as: "dominant position
the effects of social mobility, the growth of the middle classes."10
national or ethnic consciousness is very important; one of the powerful
neglected. The second influence is that of the increasing social
differentiation in modern societies
which breaks down the working-class consciousness to strengthen the middle
words, increasing the number of middle class while decreasing the number of
negative influence on revolutionary class consciousness.
The last problem asks what conditions are necessary beyond the abolition of
private property in the means of production, in order to establish what Marx
socialism. Marx wrote about the advancement of science and how it could be
scarcity to meet human needs. As a result, man would be free from those
pursue their human potential. Beyond all of this, what Bottomore is implying
of Marx’s political theory. Concentrating on the interaction between the
production, emergence of new human needs, development of a political
creation of organizations to take part in a political struggle. Regrettably,
the theory of class, can only be examined through fragments of Marx’s work.
Another way of looking at Marx’s theory of class is how Elster attempts to
terms of property, exploitation, market behavior, and power. Elster claims
frequently defined as "a group of persons who stand in the same relation
property to the factors of production, that is labor-power and means of
this definition, the words ‘property’ and ‘non-property’ are too restrictive
need to distinguish between property owners but then the question arises, to
also evident when using exploitation as a basis of defining class. As Elster
is too coarse-grained if it locates all exploiters in one class and all
[and] too fine grained if classes are to be distinguished in terms of the
exploitation….’infinite fragmentation’ of classes."12
In terms of the third proposal, defining class in terms of market behavior,
it is not useful in the study of non-market economies. Furthermore, "the
actual behavior and neglects its causal grounding in the endowment
referring to choice. In Marx’s view, the wage laborer has no choice in who to
how much. The reasoning behind this is that the capitalist (though needing
any individual he chooses. Elster says that class is defined by what one has
actually does. So, for example, a wage laborer decides to work in a factory
of doing so. This individual should be put in a different class from the wage
Elster’s final proposal is the aspect of power in defining class. To Marx,
relationships are built into the very structure of society, whose principal
opposed classes. Thus, class domination and subordination are central to
politics and the distribution and operation of power. Power to Marx, is class
words, it is a resource that is concentrated in the hands of a particular
use to maintain and enhance its dominant position in society, a position
exploitation. Elster says: "[t]he definition of class in terms of
domination and subordination is too
behavioral and insufficiently structural. By this I mean that the classes of
managers are defined only by what they actually do, not – as in the case of
- by what they must do by virtue of what they have." – a reference back
What Elster reveals are some of the more obvious problems inherent in Marx’s
But all of this can still be referred to in past context. Clearly, the
asked is: can Marx’s analysis be applicable today?
It is obvious that there are some serious problems in Marx’s account.
occurred in nations on the verge of entry into capitalism, not in societies
‘ripe’ for change. The working class in capitalist societies has enjoyed, in
the standard of living, and labor movements have won enough welfare
of the poor. By no means all Western societies have strong Communist parties.
growth of the middle class of managerial and professional workers appears to
view that divisions among those without wealth would disappear. Western
crises, but the state seems able to keep them in check.
Generally, then, Marx’s ideas seem to many people to have been disproved by
century developments. However, this is a limited view. The real issues are
general perspective on stratification was sound, and secondly, whether
societies are still capitalists in the general basic character of their
social relations. The first issue is
important because Marx provides an account of stratification which is
that of many other social theorists. Very often today, sociologists see
of people with similar attributes such as income, type of occupation, and so
other hand, saw classes as systematically linked in a particular structure of
An explanation of inequality is given through the analysis of the mode of
out the deeper class relations and potential conflicts below the surface of
however, is seen as a problem by many sociologists. They argue that Marx’s
simplistic to account adequately for the complexity of social inequality. For
emphasis on the ownership of productive wealth leaves us unable to explain
differences in consciousness within the mass of the population who are not
Quite clearly, the Western economies are vastly changed today in comparison
time. There is far more economic intervention by the state in most societies
employees of one kind or another form a large part of the work force.
frequent replacement of individual owner or managers by shareholders and
bureaucracies have both changed the structure of industry. However, it can
private ownership of the means of production is the basis of economic power
the labor market is still the prime determinant of wage levels. The worker is
position in the work place, and the incomes of workers are still very low in
who control them. Other interpretations are possible: it is commonly argued,
the West has a mixed economy which works in everyone’s interest, but others
This brings us back to Marx’s Capital III. It is clear that there are many
theory of class which are not discussed in this essay; the theory is
what Marx would describe in his last work. Would it have been in the same
thirty years before? Or would he have recognized, in this gap, the vitally
class structure of the modern societies of today, and that these changes
different from what he anticipated to occur? This question remains

Название: Marx Essay Research Paper As stated before
Раздел: Топики по английскому языку
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