Qin Dynasty Missionaries In China Pdf

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Qin Dynasty Missionaries In China Pdf
The Formation of the Qin Dynasty: A Socio-technical System of Systems
December 2012 Procedia Computer Science 8:402–412
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In systems engineering, architecture selection is crucial to total success of implementing a system. In light of nation building in Iraq during 2010 and Arab Spring during 2011, this theme is explored using Chinese Qin Dynasty as a historical model. The Qin Dynasty created the architecture for the socio-technical systems that are the foundation of Chinese society and have enabled Chinese success for two millennia. The Chinese experience validates importance of a systems integration perspective and a socially-acceptable pace. These insights were ascertained by the Chinese society without the benefit of precedence in other worldwide civilizations.
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Procedia Computer Science 8 (2012) 402 – 412
1877-0509 © 2012 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Available online at www .sciencedirect.com
Proced ia C ompu ter Sci ence 00 (20 12 ) 0 00 – 000
www.els evi er.com /loc ate/ proc edi a
New Chall enges in S ystems Eng ineering and Architecting
Conferenc e on S ystems En gineerin g Research (CSE R)
Organized by Missouri University of Science and Technology
A Socio- technical Sys tem of Systems
Saint L ouis Univer sity , 3674 L indell Boulev ard, St. Louis , MO 63108
In systems en gineerin g, architect ure selectio n is cru cial to total success o f implement ing a system. In light of natio n
bui lding in Iraq duri ng 2010 a nd Ara b Spring during 2011, this t hem e is ex plored us ing C hinese Qin Dy nasty as a
historical model. The Qin Dynas ty created th e architectu re for the socio - technical systems t hat are the fou ndation of
Chin ese society and have en abled Chi nese success for t wo millennia. T he C hinese experien ce valid ates importan ce
of a syste ms integrati on per spective and a so ciall y - acceptable p ace. These in sights were ascertai ned by the C hinese
society withou t the bene fit of prece dence in ot her w or ldwide civiliz ations .
©2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Sele ction
The form ation of a coun try out of a disparat e group of city - states is a co mmon t rend in earl y recorded
history. What start s out as diplomatic and te rritorial frictio ns becomes a dr ive to conque r and unify und er
an ambitious commander. Government, monetary, com munication, civil , and militar y system s developed
for c it y - states are no lo n ger s ufficie nt for the c ompl ex i nner - w orkings of a coun try. The leadership must
architect bet ter socio - tech nical s ystems to eff ectively manage and oper ate the count ry.
Socio - technical development projects have signifi cant impact on both technical and s ocial aspects.
One majo r distinguishing cha racteristic be tween socio - te chni cal s yste ms and p ur el y technical sys tems is
that public reaction s color both interpretation of facts an d overall level of acceptance. Hence, public
perceptions strongly influence the outcomes on standard system tradeoffs between performance, schedule,
cost, and risks that a re crucial to selecting a v iable architecture. Because th is public influen ce can be
difficult to q uantify, social e conomist develop ed a method consisting of fo ur basic questio ns to clari fy the
social aspects : Who benefits?, Wh o pays?, Who prov ides?, an d W ho loses ?. Whe n ele vated to nat ion
states, t he task of fit, balance, and compromise is extremely d iff icult in socio - technical syste ms.
Pr ior to China ’s unificat ion in 221 BC , civilization in the Middle E ast is dominated by the Macedonian
Empire of Alexa nder the Great (336 - 323 BC). Civilizatio n in Europe is based on the Celtic, Sla vic, and
Gr egory L. Mayhe w / Pr ocedia Computer Science 8 (2012) 402 – 412
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Germanic trib al structures. Civiliz ation in wester n Asia is based on th e Sarmatia tribal structure while
civilization in easter n Asia is based on the Mongol / Tib et an tribal structure s. Civilizations in North
America, South America, Africa, and Au stralia are all based on hunter gather groups. Trans for matio n of
Roman Republi c into the R oman Empire un der Gaius Julius Ca esar does n ot occur un til 49 BC.
The First E mper or o f Chi na, Ying Zhen g (259 to 210 BC ) grew u p in Zhao. In 246 BC at the age of
thirteen, he st arted ruling the Qin s tate as regent. In 237 B C at the age of 22, he assumed full power an d
pursue d co nques t as means to finally u nify t he seve n warri ng st ates. He gove rned the Qi n Dynas ty under
the na me Qi n Shi H uan g from 221 BC at age 38 u ntil his prem ature death at age 49 i n 210 BC.
The crucial outsta ndin g Qi n achi eveme nt i s an e ffecti ve, nonfe uda l, no nhereditary administratio n as the
Chine se go ver nment. Another major societal reform converted feudal peasants wh o were de - facto sl aves
into independent freehold f armers . Standard w eights, measu res, an d coinage provided common interfaces
that enabled trust and commerce . Simplified script im proved comm unicat ion fo r go vern ment, commerce,
education, and administrative processes . Infrastructure const r uction projects of n ationwide roads and
wat erways promote d cooperati on and in terdependen ce amongst disparate population gr oups . Profess ional
a r my wa s utilized bo t h f or defens e and to enf orc e the policie s of unificatio n .
As a change agent , t he Qi n E mpero r is a hig hly co ntro ver sial hi storical fi gure. Realiz ing be havio r
established over centuries would be difficult to change, the Qin Emperor adopted harsh measures b ot h out
of necessity and f ear of the opposition in order to affect dramati c changes in an extremely short time.
The architectures of all the socio - tech nical syst ems t hat w ere initiat ed d urin g the Qin d yna sty se t the
foun dation for t he ongoing evolut ion of Chinese imperial system of syste ms over the next t wo millennia.
U nific atio n of China a s the Qin Em pire is preceded by the Western Zhou period f rom 1, 027 to 771 BC,
the S pring / Au tumn period f rom 770 t o 476 BC, an d the Warri ng St ates period f rom 475 to 221 BC.
Early Chinese history was written by membe rs of the r uling scholar / officia l class. T hes e philos ophy
histories provide d the rulers with precede nts to guide or justify their po licies. The phi losophers of the
Zhou d ynast y first enunciated the doctrine “m andate of heaven.” The “so n of heave n” r uled b y divine
right but dethro nement indicat ed the loss of this ma ndate. This doct rine expl ained an d justif ied demise of
the two earlier dynasties while simultaneousl y supporting the legi timacy of th e prese nt and fu ture rulers.
The dece ntral ized r ule dur ing Zhou d ynas ty is simi lar to medieval European feu dal system. H o we ve r ,
Zhou d ynas ty wa s pr oto - feud al. T he gover nme nt was a more sophisticated version of an earlier tribal
organizatio n , in which e ffectiv e control was based on fami lial - based politic al and eco nomic institutio ns .
Over time, a coalitio n of city - states became increa sing i nte grate d, r esulti ng in benevolent gove rna nce b y
an overload . The Zhou o ver lo rd a ppro ach was su pported b y a unive rsa l agric ult ural t axa tio n syst em. In
771 BC, the Z hou cou rt was sacke d by invadi ng barbaria ns who all ied with rebel lords .
The fragmentation a fter the Zhou Dynasty re sulted in over 140 territories ruled by feuda l warlord s.
The overlord role from the Zhou era gradually shifted f ro m its stat ed inte ntion of protecting weaker stat es.
Great states u sed the pretext of a ssistanc e to i nterve ne in t he affairs of weaker states . This resulted in a
per iod o f extre me hege mon y, as r egional w arlords annexed smaller states around th em and consolidated
their rule. The chro nicle s o f the sta te o f Lu c over its inter na l po litics d uri ng t he rei gn o f twel ve d ukes a nd
their interactio ns with the major states o f Qi, Jin, Qin, and Chu. Entries are noted per season of the y ear,
thus giving th e whole his torical peri od its nam e “Spr ing and Au tumn.”
From ancient times, chariot a rmies are the foundation o f Chinese military s ystems. Dur ing S prin g /
Autumn period, warfare continued to be stylized a nd cere monia l eve n as i t gre w more vio lent. Duri ng
this period, there w ere 480 wars during wh ich 52 vassal states vanquished and 36 kings were executed .
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At en d of the Spring / Autumn period, consolidation resu lted in the seven states sho wn in F igure 1.
Seven states are Q i, C hu, Ya n, H an, Zhao, W ei, a nd Q in. Qin state was poorest an d had barbarian roots.
Hence, Qin was not consi dered by contemporaries as a proper conten der for the u nific atio n of C hina .
The name Warrin g States p eri od is deri ved from the Record of W arring Stat es writte n dur ing the Han
dynas ty. Most of this period, from 475 to 338 BC , wa s actually a respit e from previous hegemony . Each
of the seven states focu sed on con solidation, po litical cha nges for stabilit y, an d peace for prosperity .
Unfort unately , increas ed prosperit y renew ed inter est in unifi cation and hegem ony from 338 to 22 1 BC.
Each state ’s r uler had an ento urage of politica l advisors. T he persuaders proposed both actual political
tactics and societ al re forms based on domin ant phil osophies. Most influential persuaders were Shang
Yan g in Qin, Wu Qi in C hu, and Li K ui in W ei. Processes th at worked for only small city - states wer e
replaced by administrat ive syste ms . However, only the Qin state replaced enf eoffment of nobles’ familie s
with appointme nt of state offic ials based on demonst rated adm inistrat ive skil l .
Gradually, iron becam e widespr ead and replaced bronze. F arming as a syst em was t ra nsformed f ro m
stric tly ha nd - labor to tool - assisted labor. In p articular, iron hoes, axes, and plows all became common,
yielding a marked increase in social productivity. Thi s ad vancement of agriculture led to the emergence
of ha ndicr afts a nd mercha nts i n Chi na.
Thi s prosperou s era enabled the H undre d
Schoo ls o f Tho ught. The four mai n phil osophie s
were Taoism elaborated by L ao Zi, Confucian -
ism elaborated by Mencius, Mohism formulated
by Mozi, and Legalism formulated by Han Feizi .
These ph ilosoph ies had profou nd impli cations
during developm ent of soci o - te chnic al s yst e ms
in Chi na ove r the next millennia .
Confucianism advocated the bas ic goodn ess
of man. Therefore, society could be govern ed
by mor al persu asion rather than a legal system .
M oral persuasion was enf or ced through social
education to mainta in order. La ws w ere sim p ly
the e m bod iment of the accepted social norms .
Legalism advocated that p eople would n ot
natura ll y obe y and therefore needed to be ruled
by strict laws e nforced with hars h puni shme nts.
The corresp onding political system had w el l
defined expectati o n s and fi rm gover nme ntal
control. Each level reported on t he lower levels
and w as respons ible for g ood / bad pe rform ance
at next lo wer level. Justice was uniform based
on lack of performance in a particular level of
responsibilit y rather than fa milial con nec tio ns.
In the second part of the Warring States period, warfare was transformed from chariot battles between the
overlord s to infantry battles led by professional ge nerals. The nobles became a literate class rather than a
warrior class. Military camp aigns emphasized strategy, deception, and intelligence.
At th e beginning of Warring Stat es period, s tand in g ar mies in Zha o, C hu, a nd Qi n were 50 thousa nd
soldiers . By t he end of t he Warring State s period, st anding armies wer e 500 thous and to 1 m illion
so ldier s. Only prospe ring econ omies with efficient lo gistical systems co uld afford these militaries.
Figur e 1 – Warring States Pe riod
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Cavalr y wa s intro duce d usin g the s mall ho rses o btai ned fr om the Mo ngo ls in the nort hern fro ntie r.
New weapons in cluded iron armor, cros sbows, and hal berd s. As i llu strated in movie He ro , the crossbow
was the preferred long range weapon. Mass production of crossbow s enab led battalions of well trained
archers . I nfa ntr y comm only used 9 f oot halberds , a thr ustin g spea r with a sla shi ng axe blade.
Durin g this time, si x of Seven M ilitary Classics o f Ancient China were written: (1) The Art of War b y
Sun T zu, (2 ) Six Secr et Teac hings by Jiang Zi ya, ( 3) The Methods of Sima by Sima Rangj u, (4) Wu - tzu
by W u Qi , (5 ) Li ao - tzu by Wei, and (6) Three St rategie s of Huan g Shih - kung . The seventh, Quest ions
and Repl ies of Tang T ai - tsun g and Li W ei - kung , w as written 800 years later. Once China was unified,
access to these seve n military classics was restric ted due to t heir tendenc y to promote revolution.
Politic al ideas , geography , and resources during War ring S tates period h ad prof ound inf luence tow ards
unific ati on of China b y the Qin st ate fro m 230 to 221 BC. Ying Zhe ng’s que st fo r unity was s haped by
his e xperi ence s wit h the Zha o o verlo rd go ve rna nce , t he L egalism philosophy , the Qin r egio n’s gro wing
economic power, and the devastation of the Qi n regio n d ue to constant w arfare.
From the time of his great - grandfather, Duke Xiaogong, the weaker Qin state allied itself with the
stronger Zhao s tate. Common practice was to exchange nobility between states as a pledge of good faith.
Zhua ng Xia ng, his fathe r, sp ent mo st o f his life i n t he Zha o co urt, where he me t and mar ried Zhao J i.
Born in 259 BC, Ying Zheng’s form ative yea rs wer e spe nt in t he Zhao court. He acquired significant
warrior skills. He was als o ind octr inate d in t he tr adit ional Zho u co urt philos ophy that the ov erlord duty
was t o protect an d improv e the lives of the people un der his respon sibility .
Ying Z heng gr ew up in the p ortio n of the War ring States period in w hich si x states were all advocatin g
unification, but warfare rather than diplomacy was commonly accepted as the means to the end. Prior to
his gr and fathe r’s ti me, t he econo mi call y w eak Qin state was incapable of unifying China t hrough mi lita ry
conq uest. H owe ver, b eginn ing wit h his gr andfa ther , the Q in state imple me nted gr adua l chan ges whi ch
ultimately facilit ated the unification of China under its auspices .
Thi s later Qin s tate benefi ted from the lon gevi ty o f highl y effective g o ver nor s who aggres sive ly
imported ta lent ed adv isors. Duk e Hsia o governed 24 y ears (361 - 338 BC ) with Lor d Sh ang Ya ng as hi s
counse lo r . Kin g Hui - wen go ver ned 27 years ( 337 - 311 BC ) and Du ke Xia ogo ng gover ned 56 years (306
to 250 BC ). Duri ng this e ra, Q in a ggres sively adopted reforms in administr ation, measurement standards ,
law codificatio n, taxation, a nd a professional militar y based o n evol vin g needs r at her tha n tr adit ion .
Legal ism p hilo sop hy sha ped the Qi n sta te i n many ways. This ph ilosophy a dvocated selecting state
off icia ls due to co mpete nc y rathe r tha n fami ly con nect ions. Fief owners in other stat es accum ulated lar ge
per sonal fo rtune s and assembled legions of f ollowers, thereby do mi nating their state’ s administratio n and
chall engi ng the go ver nor’ s aut horit y. On the other hand , Qin g overnors rem oved powerful but ineffective
fami l ies . While gove rno rs in other six states were still di ffusing a uthori ty a mong e nfeo ffed rel atives, the
Qin sta te instantiated and buttressed t he gover nor as the sing le loc us of undi vide d aut horit y.
Legalism also advocated a uniform code of justice for all citizens and r einforced military discip line.
The l egal reforms w ere a series of rewards an d punishments which provided incenti ves for meritorious
conduct and sev ere det errents f or wrong doing. A meritocrac y of eighteen hierarchical ran ks promoted
achievem ent by all while c urtailin g prestige of tr aditional a ristocrac y. Military reforms were universa l
tax payments a nd mobiliza tion of all a dult males for service. While al l the Warring States w ere organi zed
for war, Qi n was u niq ue in e xtendi ng thi s pattern to ever y level of its societ y. Qin als o ha d a uniq ue
admin istrati on that was focu sed on mobi lizing and prov isioning its forces for conque st. These reforms
transformed o ld n oble - based city - stat e into a peasant - based warring macro - state.
Geogra phy also had a significant im pact on the structure and character of an cient China. Yellow River
basin was home to 90 percen t of the popu lation . The loe ss h ighlan ds west of Hangu P ass (Wei Ri ver
valley) formed the Qin state. This rugged ter rain contrib uted to the un yielding chara cter of its peop le but
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provided m inimal oppor tuni ties for ag ricul ture. At other end of Yello w River valley, the alluvial floo d
plain provid ed the rich farmland o f the Qi state. Located bet ween these two extre mes were ro lling hills
that formed the Han, Wei, and Zhao states. To the south , the Middle Yangzi provi ded the rich farmland
of the Chu state. G eographic features isolated these state s , resul tin g in hi ghl y conce ntrat ed pop ulatio ns.
The Qin state ope rated from remote posi tions in t he Guang Zhong Mountain s that we re easy to def end
but d id no t have ab unda nt res our ces. Under Duke Xi aogo ng, Qi n exp anded their terr itor ies so uth ward.
This area had much better land and weather for f ar ming. In year s follo wing 2 46 BC, Q in built the Che ng
K uo transportation can al and the irrigation system in D ujia ngya n basin . The canal greatly increased the
prod uctivity in the Wei valle y. The irr igatio n s ystem t urned the Min R iver basi n into an ab unda nt
far ming re gion . The resul ting Qin pros perity funded b oth the e xpand in g ar m y and i mpro ving t he pub lic
works infrastructure. This ec ono mic wea lth gradua lly made Qin pr edo minant amo ng its r ival s.
In 24 9 B C, Zhua ng Xi ang ret urned from Zhao to rule Qin and selected the title Ki
Mature Fisting
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