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By using our site, you agree to our collection of information through the use of cookies. To learn more, view our Privacy Policy. To browse Academia. Policy changes over the past five years have dramatically reshaped the global cannabis market, opening up legal markets for medical cannabis and, increasingly, also for adult, non-medical use. Despite the fact that these shifts look set to bring a clear range of benefits in terms of health and human rights, there is concern over the many for-profit cannabis companies from the Global North that are aggressively competing to capture the licit spaces, squeezing out small and traditional cannabis farmers from the Global South. If the construction of the global cannabis prohibition regime was an historic mistake, then a transition towards a legally regulated market that concentrates profits in a handful of Big Pharma, Ag, Tobacco and Cannabis companies, while locking out small-scale farmers in the Global South, only serves to further this damaging legacy. The focus of Fair Trade cannabis must be to empower small and traditional producers in the cannabis trade, based on a number of first Global patterns of cannabis cultivation have followed a fascinating development, from highly concentrated production in certain developing countries to decentralized production in almost every country around the world UNODC, Historically, the spread of cannabis cultivation across the globe reflected the industrial utility of hemp; the widespread use of cannabis as a recreational drug did not appear until much later Abel, ; Booth, It is with the emergence of modern patterns of cannabis use in the developed world that we have seen major changes in patterns of cannabis pro-duction. Firstly, cultivation increased in many traditional growing regions as exportation to the consumer markets of the industrialized world became an attractive option. A third phase in the evolution of cannabis production has been the increase in cultivation across the industrialised world. Although some small-scale cultivation probably has almost as long a history as cannabis use in the west, widespread small-scale cultivation and larger-scale commercial production only begins to appear towards the end of the twentieth century. In some countries the levels of domestic cultivation have reached the stage where self-sufficiency in cannabis markets has largely been attained Leggett, ; Bouchard, ; Jansen, For the majority of its history, the cultivation of cannabis did not stand out, at least compared to the cultivation of other illegal plants. Cannabis plantations, like coca bush or opium poppy plantations, were typically large in size, grown by local farmers in a handful of developing producing countries, processed and then exported to industrial consuming nations. While cocaine and heroin are still produced in a handful of developing countries, cannabis cultivation is increasingly universal. From Europe to the Americas and Oceania, import substitution in cannabis markets has been noticed in almost every developed country around the world, with a notable aversion for discrimination. Geographical, technological, cultural and economic factors help to explain why indoor and outdoor domestic cultivation is well established, and why the nature and extent of cultivation varies so dramatically across the western, developed nations. As we start the second decade of the 21st century, the new cannabis industry continues to fascinate both casual and academic observers of the drug scene. Researchers around the world have become increasingly interested in the phenomenon, aiming to describe, and potentially explain, the rapid switch from importation to domestic production in their own countries. In bringing together some of the world's leading experts on cannabis cultivation this book contains sixteen chapters that take an interdisciplinary look at global trends in cannabis cultivation. It will serve as an exemplar for wider discussions of key theories and concepts relating to the spread not just of cannabis cultivation, but also of illegal markets more generally, the actors that operate within these markets and the policies and practices that are employed in response to developments within these markets. World Wide Weed: global trends in cannabis cultivation and its control, When internationally renowned cannabis activist Marc Emery was arrested in July by the Drug Enforcement Administration on charges of exporting cannabis seeds to the United States, it marked the end of one of the largest and most successful cannabis seed businesses in the world. Emery was probably aware that, independent of his own actions, cannabis cultivation was already spreading around the world, a trend that has accelerated at an impressive pace over the past 25 years. Cannabis cultivation is spreading around the world, a trend that has accelerated at an impressive pace over the past 25 years. Beginning in the s in some countries and the s in others, gradually smaller quantities of cannabis were being intercepted in many of the major ports and airports of the industrialized world. At the same time, the police and the media in dozens of different countries were reporting the discovery of more and more cannabis plants over more and more cultivation sites — first in outdoor, then in indoor settings. Researchers slowly but surely became interested in the phenomenon, aiming to describe, and potentially explain, the rapid switch from importation to domestic production in their own countries. As we start the second decade of the 21 st century, the new cannabis industry continues to fascinate both casual and meticulous observers of the drug scene. At least two characteristics make this fundamental change in cannabis markets particularly interestin Background: While the supply of cannabis is commonly assumed to be dominated by criminal gangs, a sizable share of the domestic cannabis supply is provided by small-scale growers. This article examines the nature and scope of small-scale growers' distribution practices, with a particular focus on crosscountry differences and variations between different types of grower-distributors, i. Methods: Based on a large convenience web survey sample of predominantly small-scale cannabis growers from 18 countries, this article draws on data from two subsamples. Results: The majority of the cannabis growers engaged in distribution of surplus products, making them in effect 'grower-distributors'. Importantly, many did so as a secondary consequence of growing, and social supply e. While growers who both shared and sold 'sharers and sellers' , and especially those who only sold 'exclusive sellers' , grew a higher number of plants and were most likely to grow due to a wish to sell for profits, the majority of these are best described as small-scale sellers. That is, the profit motive for growing was often secondary to non-financial motives and most sold to a limited number of persons in their close social network. Conclusion: We discuss the implications of the findings on the structural process of import-substitution in low-end cannabis markets, including a growing normalization of cannabis supply. Pleasure, pain and profit. European perspectives on drugs, This chapter explores the profit, pleasure and pain associated with the increased occurrence of cannabis cultivation in the western world. However, explanations for the activities of individual cannabis growers depend on a more complex interplay of both economic and non-economic considerations. Fundamental to a market perspective is the idea that growers are motivated by profit. While most are, the literature also recognises various non-financial drivers. Cannabis may be grown for personal pleasure, medical use, or to make a political or cultural statement. For some growers, profit is the main factor. For others profit is of no concern. For most growers there is a mixture of financial and non-financial drivers. It seems from the literature that cannabis growers are, in the main, rational actors. Growers minimise risks as much as possible, weighing up remaining costs against the benefits they are seeking. Policies and theories based on the assumption that this particular criminal activity is purely economic will fail to account for the wider phenomenon of cannabis cultivation in industrialised nations. Subtitled 'Recommendations for the implementation of Cannabis policies aligned with international Human Rights standards, the Agenda for Sustainable Development and the UNGASS outcome document', this report explains how the reform of hemp and cannabis policies can sustain or make harder — depending on the policy options chosen — the attainment of the United Nations agenda for Sustainable Development. The reformist trend in Cannabis policy globally is an ongoing movement unlikely to be stopped. A deficit of democratic monitoring of the generalization of legal Cannabis markets could represent a threat for affected populations and public health. Ethics are needed. A renewed interest and takeover of the topic Cannabis by all categories of the population are urgent. A one-size-fits-all policy seems neither desirable nor possible, both for geographical imperatives and for the diversity of uses and products of the plant. This makes consensual policy models exportable and generalizable difficult to emerge. Rather than trying to solve the equation of the perfect Cannabis policy and its infinite variables, a more feasible approach would be to step aside, list all the different public policies that affect, or are involved with Cannabis, and address them individually. The Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 Goals is but a perfect tool for this purpose. This discussion paper highlights important research and experiential outcomes from scholars, civil society organizations, affected populations, and market stakeholders. It seeks to show the potential of the Cannabis plant in appropriately regulated settings as transformative for our societies — so long as ethical practices and sustainable approaches are kept central. This document is not intended to be an exhaustive guide. It is designed as a valuable resource to contribute to post-prohibition studies, and help understand, from diverse public policy perspectives, the links between the policies of Cannabis and the Sustainable Development Goals, and the impact of the former on the latter. European Journal of Natural Sciences and Medicine. Log in with Facebook Log in with Google. Remember me on this computer. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Need an account? Click here to sign up. Fair Trade cannabis: a road map for meeting the socio-economic needs and interests of small and traditional growers Martin Jelsma. The globalisation of cannabis cultivation: a growing challenge Gary Potter. The globalization of domestic cannabis cultivation 1 Tom Decorte. The case for small-scale domestic cannabis cultivation Tom Decorte. Global patterns in small-scale cannabis growers' distribution practices: Exploring the grower-distributor nexus Gary Potter. You reap what you sow: the profit, pleasure and pain in domestic cannabis cultivation Gary Potter. Why small-scale cannabis growers stay small Sveinung Sandberg. Paving the way for the next decade in Cannabis and hemp policies Kenzi Riboulet-Zemouli. Her work focuses on issues around land and food politics, natural resource governance, rural development and agricultural investment. More recently she has been engaged in debates around drugs and development, and the prospects for fair er trade cannabis. Martin Jelsma is Director of the Drugs and Democracy programme at the Transnational Institute Amsterdam and Senior Research Associate at the Global Drug Policy Observatory Swansea University , working on links between drugs policy, conflict, human rights and development, often in collaboration with small farmers of cannabis, coca and opium. Abstract Policy changes over the past five years have dramatically reshaped the global cannabis market, opening up legal markets for medical cannabis and, increasingly, also for adult, non-medical use. The focus of Fair Trade cannabis must be to empower small and traditional producers in the cannabis trade, based on a number of first order principles, market strategies and public policies. Crucially, growers must be enabled to organise amongst themselves and forge coalitions with other actors in order to advocate for appropriate frameworks and interventions. Keywords: cannabis; sustainable development; human rights; market strategy; cooperatives; war on drugs; drug policy; Fair Trade Cannabis is the most widely consumed drug in the world, with million people reportedly having used cannabis at least once in the year leading up to While even 1 The authors are grateful to the comments provided by two anonymous reviewers whose careful reading of the draft greatly improved the argumentation and detail. Any remaining errors are our own. World Drug Report The motivation behind classifying a plant — whose cultivation and use in agriculture, traditional medicine, and religious and cultural practices goes back many centuries — in this way reflected competing corporate and geopolitical interests prevalent in the early twentieth century. The harms caused by the global control regime based on the UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs have been severe. They must also include the opportunity costs of prohibition in terms of diverted man power and resources that could have been more worthwhile spent elsewhere, as well as the loss of patient access to medical cannabis in palliative care and to treat a range of conditions. However, policy changes over the past five years or so have dramatically reshaped the global cannabis market. Not only has there been an unprecedented boom in medical markets, but, following policy shifts in several jurisdictions, a growing number of countries have also engaged with, or are preparing for, legal regulation of non-medical use. Such moves are triggered by a recognition that decades of repressive policies have proved ineffective and have had grave negative consequences, and this looks set to bring a clear range of benefits in terms of health and human rights. Nonetheless, there are also growing reservations regarding unfolding market dynamics. Among these is concern over the many for-profit cannabis companies from the Global North that are aggressively competing to capture the licit spaces now rapidly opening in what may be a multi-billion-dollar global market. This threatens to push small-scale and marginalised traditional farmers from countries like Colombia, Mexico, Jamaica, St. This is despite the fact that they have supplied the illicit market for decades, often under extremely precarious and conflict-prone conditions, in which cannabis forms part of a broader survival economy. Despite South Africa having legalised cannabis for medical use in , there is little hope among farmers — to the extent that they are even made aware of these changes — that the policy will benefit them. Instead, they see the playing 3 The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNODC has, for example, avoided issuing global production estimates since given the extreme difficulties in obtaining any kind of reliable data. Country reporting provides some insight. In Morocco, estimates of the number of people involved in cannabis cultivation vary between 90, and , households. In St. For further discussion of some of these figures see: Jelsma, M. Fair er Trade Options for the Cannabis Market. Policy Report 1, March , Cannabis Innovate pp. Drug control and development: The purposive blind spot. However, amongst them must be included the perverse effects of highly unequal trade and investment agreements that are underpinned by an extractivist logic and centred around the interests of transnational mostly Northern capital. These have directly contributed to significant increases in illicit cultivation. For example, the arrival of multinational bauxite companies in Jamaica led to the displacement of small farmers from their lands, triggering an upsurge in cannabis cultivation as well as large-scale out-migration. Meanwhile, the dismantling of the EU—Caribbean preferential trade agreement for bananas in the s essentially wiped out the banana economies of many of the Windward Islands of the Eastern Caribbean. Some, if not the majority, were to then find their way into illegal cannabis cultivation as a source of income. In this way, the special burden that the international drug control regime has placed on traditional producing countries in the Global South is replicated in more ways than one. As noted above, this is not based on any altruistic or moralising imperative but rather the scientific evidence base around the medical benefits of responsible cannabis use and the best way to treat problematic use and reduce harm. This is based on the understanding that with the right policies in place, cannabis can deliver jobs, income and food security, reduce the health bill, and free up otherwise precious budgetary resources currently spent on interdiction that can then be allocated to other vital public services and development outcomes. From a Fair Trade perspective, this would centre on the socio-economic needs and interests of small and traditional growers from producing countries in the Global South. And, while not our focus here, the same holds true for black and Latino communities in the U. The motivation for prioritising small and traditional cultivators is not only based on concerns for social and racial justice but also care for the environment. Much of the industrial-scale growing of cannabis, for example, takes place indoors, in highly controlled greenhouse conditions using intensive monocultures. When translated to outdoor systems, this approach will undoubtedly have impacts on biodiversity and soil health. Although important not to romanticise the practices of small farmers and the very real challenges they face when growing in sometimes extremely fragile ecological zones, small-scale, organic, outdoor production uses much less energy, using natural sun light rather than electricity to provide indoor lighting and heating systems. These benefits are, however, not automatically accrued and any system — indoor, outdoor, small-scale or industrial — will require careful monitoring and evaluation. People feel betrayed: Small-scale dagga growers fear exclusion from legal trade. Demonstrate a commitment to upholding human rights and strengthening social and economic justice by integrating them as core values within any initiative. Centre on producer empowerment and community benefit sharing through more equitable terms of trade. In this model, producers are not just seen as providers of raw materials but as value creators. Baselines prices can be agreed within cannabis cooperatives with social premiums invested in training and skill development in order to ensure that a greater share of the added value is retained and returned to growers and local and regional economies. Use production methods that adhere to strong environmental sustainability standards in relation to land, soil and forestry management and the use of energy, water and agricultural inputs. Producers are supported in developing environmentally sound techniques. Put in place proper labour protections to ensure worker safety, health and satisfaction. A zerotolerance approach is taken with regards to labour or sexual exploitation. Workers are paid a fair price for their labour in accordance with the local living wage. Encourage more democratic control, participation and decision-making processes through inclusive business models and systems of worker-driven social responsibility. Particular attention is paid to the role of women and gender sensitive governance processes. Generate transparency and traceability in the operation of the cannabis market and supply chain through mandatory disclosure of investors and the putting in place of appropriate and producerfriendly licensing, quality control and standard-setting systems. Focus on longer-term strategies, with special attention placed on marginalised communities and rural areas in traditional producing countries. This includes opening up a path to compliance for good faith cannabis producers who are transitioning out of illegality. Restorative justice should be considered for those previously excluded or criminalised. Resonate with the social history of a particular place, foregrounding traditional growing communities and the role of cannabis in their cultural and religious identities and practices. While these first order principles may appear aspirational at present, there is no reason why they cannot be put into practice through concrete strategies for implementation. This requires political will and vision, and an understanding that markets do not arise spontaneously but require active creation, regulation and guidance. This is not within the gift of any one actor or investor alone. This stands in contrast to how much of the global cannabis industry has unfolded thus far, which has seen a glut of new investors enter the market in a very short time frame, resulting in speculative bubbles, booms and busts, market saturation, and allegations of fraud. A strategic compact for Fair Trade cannabis Unlocking the potential for Fair Trade cannabis thus means making use of all the tools that are available in the public policy toolbox, as well as leveraging a broader community of practice — including, first and foremost, 8 These first order principles first appeared in Jelsma, M. There are many possibilities here. This can involve targeted training sessions in meeting Good Agricultural Practices GAP and Good Manufacturing Practices GMP 9 standards, and exchanges with specialised liaison officers for example from medical cannabis authorities on how to navigate the relevant bureaucracy. It could also include recognition of more producer-friendly quality assurance systems, such as participatory guarantee systems, that rely on peer review mechanisms as a complement to more official, top-down regulatory frameworks. Vincent and the Grenadines. Focus should be on safeguarding indigenous strains and native seeds to protect against contamination and cross-pollination. This knowledge should be made accessible to cannabis growers rather than leaving this in private hands, which can result in growers having to pay for access or even being excluded completely due to patented technologies. Of course, in a highly unequal, unpredictable and ever-evolving global market, not all these measures will necessarily have the desired effects, particularly if there is a lack of strong follow through, due diligence and on-theground monitoring of impacts. Quotas to involve small growers can become tokenistic or end up turning them into day labourers on cannabis plantations, as has been observed in Colombia. Even in the case of California, it is estimated that as of February only 0. Growing consumer demand for sustainable cannabis Investing in market strategies for Fair Trade cannabis is based on the premise that there already is, or will be, a growing demand for more environmentally friendly and sustainably sourced cannabis products. But what evidence is there to suggest this is true? While market research on consumer demand for fair er trade cannabis is still very limited, there are signs that point in a positive direction. A study of cannabis dispensaries in the city of Portland, Oregon — where the growth, possession, sale and use of medical cannabis has been legalised since and the licensed sale of cannabis for personal use since — shows promise. Other experiences centre on the medical cannabis market. Stronger scientific research, combined with education and awareness raising workshops for farmers, can also help to conserve local cannabis landraces that are disappearing due to the introduction of exogenous varieties that are being pushed due to the higher THC levels. This is the case, for example, in Morocco where local landraces, such as Beldia and Khardala, are vanishing as they are being replaced by more recently introduced European varieties, despite the fact that Moroccan landraces are more eco-friendly to cultivate and are known to have interesting cannabinoid profiles, which make them potentially useful for both medicinal and industrial purposes. The challenges of medicinal cannabis in Colombia. A look at small — and medium — scale growers. Drug Policy Briefing No. An emerging crisis: Barriers to entry in California cannabis. Extending ethical consumerism theory to semi-legal sectors: Insights from recreational cannabis. Agriculture and Human Values, 35 2 , — This shows the scope for growing the market for Fair Trade cannabis, both for medical and for personal use, particularly as high profile cases around individual patients or around the exploitative conditions to be found in illegal cannabis farms play out in the media. It will thus, perhaps to a greater degree than other more conventional Fair Trade products, require a level of advocacy to raise awareness and lift consumer consciousness around the prospects for Fair Trade in the cannabis market. It will also rely heavily on market differentiation strategies by which consumers can identify the provenance of distinct cannabis products. As the legal market for cannabis expands, a more discerning set of consumers may be primed to ask questions about origin and who are interested in the idea of craft, sun-grown, organic product using unique, heritage strains and for community benefit. The opportunities, particularly for countries that have a long history of cannabis cultivation and indigenous culture around its use, such as ganja in Jamaica or kif in Morocco, could be significant. Developing appropriate and credible sustainable labeling systems and making use of tools such as geographic indications would help to strengthen these competitive advantages. This closes down export channels and restricts participation in the market. These tensions are not necessarily insurmountable and creative proposals have been put forward for how to navigate these — such as through countries signing inter se agreements amongst themselves. Banking regulations, for example, must be brought in line with cannabis markets in order for accounts not to be frozen due to proceeds of crime legislation and to allow for the issuance of loans and grants to cannabis-related businesses. Meanwhile, one should not underestimate the considerable up-front investments and administrative hoops one must jump through to be considered a legitimate actor in the cannabis market. It is a situation that privileges early movers and those who can afford to make highcapital, high-tech investments. Clearly, there is a world of difference between corporate cannabis and the realities of a small cannabis grower, which cannot easily be bridged. It will require states to exercise regulatory and discretionary power in order to set the rules of the game, attract responsible investors, and line up suitable buyers and market outlets. The potential pay-off for countries that have the foresight to develop these kinds of markets can be significant. Cannabis can be produced for export as well as for local healing and 17 See, for example, the case of human trafficking and illegal cannabis farms in the U. The Guardian. This could open the possibility of international trade between regulated licit markets, enabling small-scale farmers in traditional cannabis-producing countries in the Global South to participate in transnational commerce at both global and regional levels. The development of an industrial hemp industry is also envisaged. Cannabis, produced organically and outdoors can also provide for the already lucrative recreational market. This can ensure that growers do not just become the providers of raw material but can step up into more diversified and value-adding activities. It is, however, not clear that all countries or regions will have the political vision and will to push for such a framework. Even among those that are willing to spend the political capital in doing so, it is not a given that this will produce positive results. Shaping market structures is not the same as determining market outcomes, as any market-driven social justice initiative — such as that embodied by the Fair Trade movement — will attest to. This is why facilitating and supporting organisation amongst growers is essential. It is only by growers coming together, forming networks, forging alliances, articulating demands and mobilising the call for them to be implemented, that real change can come about. Steps to do so are already afoot at local, national, regional — even international — levels. As the legal market for cannabis expands, the key will be to form coalitions between growers, consumers, patients, doctors, lawyers, scientists, drug policy activists, development practitioners and enlightened public policymakers across the Global North and South, to be ready to make the case for Fair Trade cannabis. The opportunity is there. It now needs to be grasped. For an introduction, see: Rosset, P. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 38 1 , — Data Base Marben Liwan. Formation mechanism of authigenic gypsum in marine methane hydrate settings: Evidence from the northern South China Sea Thomas Algeo. Markedly decreased expression of class I histocompatibility antigens, protein, and mRNA in human small-cell lung cancer James Mulshine. Different distribution of antimicrobial resistance genes and virulence profiles of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from clinical mastitis in six countries paola cremonesi. Stream invertebrate community structure at Canadian oil sands development is linked to concentration of bitumen-derived contaminants Matthias Liess. A note on computational methods for input-output econometric models Ahmed Sameh. Related topics Business Fair Trade.

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