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Tradition says that this crevice leading into the mountain was a meeting place for sages, who typically used sound to contact the spirit world. Today, the place is visited by practitioners of shamanism, who organise drumming sessions at the back of the cave. This article examines Pirunkirkko and the related traditions from the perspective of acoustics, hypothesising that the acoustic characteristics of the crevice might have played a role in the ritualisation of the place and the power of its rituals. Methods employed include impulse response recording, spectrum analysis, archival research, and interview of a shamanic practitioner. The results indicate that the back of the cave houses a distinct resonance phenomenon. The local folklore or the interviewed practitioner does not mention this phenomenon at all. This leads to reflection on cultural frameworks of thought that guide sensory perceptions leading to differing experiences and interpretations. Nowadays, the cave is sometimes used by shamanic practitioners, who hold rituals containing drumming and singing at the back of the cave e. This modern usage is still largely unknown to the ordinary visitors. The sages were spiritual specialists in Finnish and Karelian agricultural communities over the past centuries. Their main task was to make contact with the spirits in the environment, heal the sick, and solve various problems caused by imbalances or disturbances between people, nature, and the spirit world Honko, ; Piela, ; Tuovinen, The sages often performed in an ecstatic state of mind, which links their profession to shamanism and contemporary shamanic practitioners, who can be seen as continuing the tradition. In their rituals, the sages shouted, raged, jumped, kicked, and trembled, as if fighting with or intimidating invisible forces Haavio, , pp. In addition, they incanted, sang, spat, shot with guns, and made other loud noises Haavio, , pp. Unlike contemporary practitioners, the Finnish—Karelian sages did not use the drum, at least in recent centuries. This article seeks to explore the Pirunkirkko cave, its physical properties, and past and present uses from the perspective of acoustics. The purpose is to determine whether some acoustic phenomenon or effect in the cave could explain — or contribute to — its mythical reputation and popularity as a venue for sonic rituals. Our study is inspired by recent archaeoacoustic research that has found powerful echoes, reverberation, and resonances in places associated with religious beliefs and ritual activities. Compared to these, Pirunkirkko is a recent site, but its advantage is that there is information available about the significance and uses of the place, both through archival background research and ethnographic fieldwork. These enable in-depth interpretations of the data collected by acoustic in situ measurements and recordings, the standard methods of archaeoacoustic research. More generally, our purpose is to gain new knowledge about historical and contemporary sages, their ritual techniques and practices, and most importantly, the spaces, places, and environments used for rituals. One reason for this is that collectors of folklore in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were mostly interested in the incantation texts and, to a lesser extent, in the practices and places associated with them Siikala, , pp. Another possible reason for the silence about environmental contexts is that the sages were reluctant to tell all details of their practices, fearing that these would lose their power in the wrong hands Tuovinen, , p. Moreover, the ritual sites had to be kept secret and secluded, for from the seventeenth century, the church had condemned the sages, declaring them allies of the devil Siikala, , pp. Many of these sites appear to bear names referring to devils, which should be understood as demonised versions of the old gods and spirits Purola, , pp. Studies of contemporary shamanism in Finland are still quite rare. Research on shamanism started in Finland in the first half of the twentieth century with an emphasis on the Siberian and Finno-Ugric connections and arctic shamanism and its belief traditions Donner, ; Lehtisalo, In the last decades, shamanism has globally been studied mainly in the context of indigenous people e. Nevertheless, some research on contemporary shamanism does exist e. The Koli mountain range has a unique and diverse geologic history that includes ancient Archaean bedrock, white exposed quartzite peaks, and several caves and rockfalls. Locations of the known caves and the sacrificial crack in Koli. The largest one of the Kirkkokallio caves is the famous Pirunkirkko. The walls of the corridors are vertical and smooth. The roof is formed of an overhanging cliff and boulders that have fallen from the cliff and wedged into the crevice. Part of the cave is open from the top. The floor consists of rock, stones, and loose soil mixed with moraine, peat, and coal. No archaeological excavations have been carried out in the cave so far. So-called cave winds, controlled by outdoor temperature fluctuations, occur in the cave, a phenomenon that is rare in Finland Kejonen et al. A roundish stone acts as a threshold above which one must bend to crawl. The first outer corridor is 6. It ends in a rectangular corner that is the darkest place in the whole cave Figure 3c. Photographic tour in the Pirunkirkko cave: a Entrance to the cave; b outer corridor seen from the north. The ledge at the back; f inner corridor seen from the north lower part. The plank bridge and researcher Rainio in the foreground, the ledge at the back. Photos: Julia Shpinitskaya. The floor continues descending and has several protruding stones and steps that impede passage. The roof rises to a height of 5. It points in the direction of the magnetic field. An even roof covering the end part of the corridor is 6. The inner corridor ends at a stone pillar rising to a height of 2. A ledge on top of the pillar forms a kind of shelf, table, or seat. At this height, the cave continues for several more metres, widening and turning a bit. There is a light hole somewhere at the top, but it does not give enough light to see exactly where the cave ends. For centuries, the Koli mountain range has been considered a place where spirits reign and reside. In turn, the names of the caves, such as Pirunkirkko, Pirunkallio, and Pirunluola, refer to devils, demonised spirit beings of the Christian period see Tuovinen, , p. The inhabitants of the mountain only play and yell there, and walk through the woods, and dance and play and drive with the bells along the mountain ravines. It is said that an iron road passes via the crack through the mountain of Koli, all the way from Taipale along this road they have been heard to drive many times. Gifts for these various spirits were offered to the cracks, especially to a deep vertical crack near Ukko-Koli that was said to continue until the heart of the mountain see also N. This may be due to folk beliefs. By the mid-nineteenth century, the Koli village had grown to comprise 19 houses and its population provably included sages. A few stories of the spirits and sages of Koli appear to be related to the Pirunkirkko cave at Kirkkokallio, more or less directly. Visitors who were able to climb on top of the stone pillar and peek into the crack at the very end of the cave, saw the actual church inside the mountain. His real name is said to have been Tossavainen. He spoke little, but could do many kinds of magic. When they had come to the door and bowed once, the door opened. Then they went in and to the altar. Then another one, a bigger one, the main boss came there and advised what to do. Another time Kinolainen took an apprentice to a church whose name and location remain unspecified:. There was an ugly man inside and Kinolainen asked where it itself is. The bridge plank rose out of place and an even uglier man began to rise from there. But he trembled all the time watching this hustle and bustle, and when he should have gone on the Bible and sworn the oath, he did not want to do that at all, but wanted to rush out. But the door was locked and could not be opened. They raged at him and cursed him, and they raged at Kinolainen for bringing him, and Kinolainen raged at him that I doubted you and asked you to swear and you promised to fulfil everything. In addition, he was seen in Pirunkirkko Kejonen et al. Many of these stories are widespread in Finland and told in connection with other sages too. Thus, their motives are general and not related exclusively to Kinolainen. However, the stories are extremely revealing, for they tell of general thoughts, experiences, and practices related to sages in recent centuries. In the early nineteenth century, members of this family established a farm called Kinola in the northern part of the mountain range. Thus, sage Kinolainen could be connected to this house and era, and his reputation could be based on a historical figure. It is also worth noting that three Kalevala -metre healing spells — for a lizard bite, wasp sting, and childbirth complications — were collected in from a person named Tossavainen from Koli SKVR, — , VII3, nr. The name Pirunkirkko is by no means unique to Koli. The Names Archive NA contains information on places called Pirunkirkko across Finland for a detailed list of sources, see References. These places are mountains, cliffs, boulders, caves, or rock slides, located in remote areas far from villages and settlements. Many of them contain several of the mentioned terrain elements as well as rock formations resembling church benches, pulpits, or altars. Interestingly, strange noises are often reported at these places: devils shout and preach, hiisi s a kind of elves howl and sing, and invisible ravens cry. Sometimes a natural explanation is given to these findings by saying that it is actually an echo, fox, or wind that replies. In the case of Pirunkirkko in Lavia, it is said that the terrible echo in the cave, reminiscent of church acoustics, has given the place its name. These places, generally regarded as the abodes of devils or other spirits, were important operation environments for sages tasked with contacting, communicating, and dealing with the spirit world. Such places seem to have been used for rituals and healing across Finland, although most of the information found in the Finnish Literature Society Archives SKS comes from Eastern Finland, the provinces of North Karelia, Ladoga Karelia, and Savo for a detailed list of sources, see References. Once the cause of the problem was identified, the sage expelled the malicious factor by praying, conjuring, cursing, raising a thunderstorm, firing a gun, or something similar see also SKVR, — , VII4, nr. These stories are strikingly similar to the accounts of Kinolainen and his nightly visits to churches to consult the devil. Could it be that the churches in the accounts of Kinolainen, as well as in similar accounts of other sages, actually refer to Pirunkirkko type of places, and not necessarily to parish churches? This would be logical and provide valuable additional information about what was happening in the numerous mountains, rocks, and caves considered to be the abodes of devils and spirits. The door opened when the sage knocked or kicked the door or sometimes blew a keyhole with a bone whistle. All visitors jumped over the threshold at the same time, and the door slammed shut after that. The visitors walked along the church corridor in a row, the sage being the first and the others behind his back. The church was full of spirits hissing and rustling restlessly, but the sage had advised their companions to remain calm and quiet, and to respond only by spitting. The sage greeted the spirits by handing them a wooden stick. As the visitors approached the altar, an enormous dark figure, the devil himself, rose from under the floor and began talking in a humming voice. The voice was audible but so vague that only the sage could interpret it. They argued fiercely, and the sage started to wave his hands in an excited state. The church roared like thunder. To expel the cause of the disease, the sage shot with a gun or struck the patient with a piece of clothing see also SKVR, — , nr. Finally, the visitors fled the church at the speed of a bullet or a flying bird. These modes of movement, as well as the variations in rowing without oars or traveling in a dream, suggest trance visions, emphasising that the stories should not be taken as realistic travel descriptions to parish churches, public places under lock and key. Rather, the events may have taken place in the Pirunkirkko type of place acting as substitutes for the real churches or their counterparts where other types of gods were served. In some stories, the sage goes to the rock right after the church, or to the church right after the rock — this suggests that these two places were sometimes seen as separate, albeit very similar in use. Miniature coffins containing animal remains, randomly found under the floors of parish churches, bear witness to magical rituals in real buildings Hukantaival, Acoustic characteristics of the Pirunkirkko cave were explored by impulse response measurements e. To obtain a comprehensive view of the acoustics, the measurements were taken in different parts of the cave: at the entrance recording point 1 , in the middle corridor recording point 2 , and the inner corridor recording points 3, 4, and 5 Figure 2. The recording points 1, 2, 3, and 4 were situated at the height of 1. In addition to these mapped points, audio recordings for demonstration purposes were performed in acoustically interesting places, situated at the back of the cave, between recording points 4 and 5. To excite the acoustics of these spaces, we used balloon pops. Their pops provide loud instantaneous broadband signals that are constant and repeatable enough for measurement purposes. Furthermore, we planned to use logarithmic sine wave sweeps to excite the acoustics, but the dodecahedron loudspeaker of the University of Helsinki Music Research Laboratory turned out to be too large to be fitted at the back of the cave, that is, the acoustically most interesting place Figure 4. The loudspeaker could only be used in the front parts of the cave, which precludes the use of these impulse responses in the comparative analysis. The latter three provide loud instantaneous broadband signals that are too uncontrollable for measurement purposes, but can be used for playing rhythmic sequences and musical passages. Preparing for acoustic measurements in the inner corridor of the Pirunkirkko cave on 23rd of July The dodecahedron loudspeaker in the foreground, researcher Rainio at the back. Photo: Julia Shpinitskaya. The impulses and the acoustic responses of the spaces were recorded with a pair of Neumann KM omnidirectional condenser microphones that capture sound evenly from all directions. The microphones were attached to a 1. The audio demonstrations were recorded with the same equipment, supplemented with a pair of Neumann KM directional condenser microphones that pick up sound efficiently from the front, leaving sounds from behind and the side quiet. These hypercardioid microphones were directed a towards the cave wall and b along the axis of the corridor. To draw a floor map, the physical dimensions of the cave were measured with a Leica laser distance metre and a Suunto optical sighting compass. In addition, the fieldwork comprised photography and video recording. The impulse responses recorded in the Pirunkirkko cave were examined with standard audio signal analysis methods. The spectrograms allow an examination of both spectral and temporal characteristics of the Pirunkirkko impulse responses. Sonogw has up to 12 parameters, such as time offset, number of Fast Fourier Transform points, window length, window type, folding of consecutive windows, low frequency limit, and high frequency limit. The parameters in all presented spectrograms are roughly the same, in Figure 5a—e , they are identical. Amp2dt has five parameters, such as time offset, duration of the amplitude measurement window, and plotting of either the RMS or peak level graphs. Impulse responses in different parts of the Pirunkirkko cave: a Spectrogram from recording point 1, outside the cave; b Spectrogram from recording point 2 in the middle corridor; c Spectrogram from recording point 3 in the inner corridor; d Spectrogram from recording point 4 in the inner corridor, on the plank bridge; e Spectrogram from recording point 5 in the inner corridor, on the ledge; f Sound pressure level plot from recording point 5 in the inner corridor, on the ledge. The singer as well as the microphones were situated south of the plank bridge, close to the western wall. In the cave, the practitioner performed a drumming ritual to acknowledge their presence and honour the spirits. Later, the practitioner pointed out that the drumming was a thank you for the cave. In the winter conditions, even the possibility of entering the cave was seen as an important sign as we were allowed access. The practitioner and the researcher spent altogether about an hour in the cave. These acts were performed on the ledge at the back of the cave, in a place that corresponds roughly to the space where the shamanic practitioners would normally perform their rituals. During the ritual, the participating practitioner was sitting at the inner end of the ledge, while the researcher with the recording equipment was sitting at the outer edge of the ledge, yet the practitioner was aware of the recording. Recordings were made with a Zoom H4n audio recorder using its internal microphones. As the ledge was quite narrow and tight for two people, it was impossible to sit there comfortably for longer, particularly as you had to fit in there with the drum, rattles, backpacks, and recording equipment. Two separate recordings were nonetheless made: the first one included drumming and singing with rattles, and the second one was a prayer. When the researcher and practitioner were in the car leaving the site, the researcher asked the practitioner a few questions about the importance and meaning of the cave. Some additional and more specific questions were asked later during spring of Informed consent was obtained from the practitioner to analyse all these materials. The participant knew the interview would be used for research purposes. The interview was done in Finnish which was the native language for both parties. The interview was analysed using discursive psychology DP , a form of discourse analysis interested in the role that language has in constructing our social reality. When using DP, the researcher demonstrates how language builds and defines social interaction as well as diversifies social worlds. Scholars such as Potter and Wetherell , pp. Autoethnographical notes about participating in the ritual performed are also an important part of the study. Audio signal analysis of the Pirunkirkko field material indicates that each part of the cave has its own acoustic characteristics. The spectrogram in Figure 5a shows the impulse response at recording point 1, situated at the entrance to the cave, in the open air. The acoustic response of the place is displayed as the subsequent attenuating tail that loses higher frequencies quickly, but lasts longer than the 2-s plot can show. This type of response, consisting of countless overlapping reflections from surfaces farther apart, is typical of outdoor spaces, such as forests and semi-open landscapes, where the sound spreads relatively far. The spectrogram in Figure 5b shows the impulse response at recording point 2, situated inside the cave, in the middle corridor. The excitation signal is displayed as an intense pressure peak that is broadband as in the previous measurement location, but lasts longer, approximately 0. Because the balloon pops in all locations were identical, the jagged end part of the pressure peak must be composed of early reflections projecting from the corridor walls. Due to the narrowness of the corridor, these reflections arrive quickly and disappear in less than 0. Only very faint reverberation can be seen after that. This type of response, where the reflections combine with the excitation signal making it louder or heftier, is typical of small enclosed spaces. The spectrograms in Figure 5c—e show the impulse response at recording points 3, 4, and 5, situated in the inner corridor. At all three points, the excitation signal with early reflections is displayed in the same way as in the middle corridor. However, the rest of the response is peculiar. After the broadband pressure peak, a few distinctive sound frequencies remain vibrating for 0. These frequencies ring alone, becoming louder and more numerous at recording points 4 and 5, towards the end of the cave. This type of acoustic phenomenon is known in standard acoustics as resonance, alternatively as room resonance or room mode Everest, , pp. Resonance occurs when sound waves bouncing between two relatively close and smooth parallel walls form a standing wave, a kind of temporary storage of acoustic energy. The wavelength of this standing wave corresponds to the distance between the parallel walls, or more precisely, is twice the distance. The standing wave results in amplification and prolongation of the corresponding sound frequency, called the natural frequency or resonant frequency of the space Everest, , pp. Because the amplification and prolongation also apply to the harmonic partials of the natural frequency, the end result is a musical tone. Based on the spectrum analysis, it seems evident that the Pirunkirkko cave houses a pronounced resonance phenomenon. The smooth parallel walls of the inner corridor extract their natural frequency from a given broadband signal, amplifying and prolonging it into a ringing tone. This is in line with the size measurements taken at the end of the inner corridor. The scatter in the frequency rates, wavelengths, and calculated measurements can be explained by inharmonicity and small irregularities along the naturally formed cave walls. The resonance phenomenon of the Pirunkirkko cave is readily audible in the inner corridor. During the acoustic fieldwork, we noticed it at once from the unusual metallic tone colour of the first balloon pop. This drew attention to the ringing tone in the response. Moreover, the resonance phenomenon can be heard after a handclap, drumbeat, or clang of a wooden percussion plate, that is, any type of instantaneous impulse-like broadband signal. However, the partial structure of the resonant tone is emphasised in different ways, due to the varied spectra of these non-standard signals. During a rapid clapping or drumming session at approximately — beats per minute, the ringing tone fills the gaps between the claps or beats, creating an illusion of a continuous tone humming, buzzing, or hoovering in the space Sound sample. On the other hand, the effect is much weaker at the beginning of the corridor, north of the plank bridge. Even soft humming — in some cases almost mere blowing — is enough for this purpose. When the pitch is correct enough, the vocalised tone is instantaneously captured by the corridor: amplified and prolonged by it for 0. This creates the impression that the corridor is responding or joining the singing. On the other hand, when the pitch is incorrect, such as a step below or above the correct one, there is no reaction from the space. The corridor remains silent. This effect appears to function everywhere at the back of the corridor. By ear and by comparison with the directional microphones, the effect is clearly strongest next to the walls. This supports the interpretation of the resonance phenomenon, since the antinodes of the standing wave are always located next to the reflecting surfaces Everest, , Figures 15—2, 15—5. The day was wintery with snow piled up against the hill. The sky was half sunny, but at the entrance to the Pirunkirkko cave the shadows from the hill above were obstructing the sun. It was unsure whether the cave could be reached as sometimes the snow actually prevented the entrance during the winter. The participating shamanic practitioner considered it a good sign that we were able to get to the cave and enter it even with all the snow. The entrance to the cave was nonetheless very small as can be seen from the photo in Figure 7. She was only able to stand up straight in the middle corridor after the rectangular corner. Progressing deeper and deeper in the cave caused an almost claustrophobic feeling, as during the winter, the narrow corridors were slippery with ice. These realisations proved to be useful in the study as when coming out of the cave, the researcher was feeling freedom, which could be described as feelings of rejuvenation and healing, as the practitioner later noted in the interview. Photo: Practitioner N. Inside Pirunkirkko, the practitioner performed a ritual by drumming and singing. The ledge was perhaps easier to reach during the winter as the snow had piled up against the side of the ledge so that it was not as high as during the summer. The practitioner had to instruct the researcher on where to put her feet to get up. This demonstrated the difficulty of getting up to the ledge. They described the cave as the womb of Mother Earth. When analysed, this would seem to highlight that within the cave, the practitioner not only feels safe and deeply connected with the surroundings but also feels protected by the ligaments of the mother. The connection while within the cave is, therefore, exceptional and deep. In addition, the participant highlighted the connection that one had with their roots. This connection could refer to either the physical heritage or the spiritual roots. Neoshamanism only gained awareness in Finland towards the end of the s. The first shamanic workshops were arranged in the early s and the shamanic association was established in The break in the tradition would imply that the interviewed practitioner is referring more to their spiritual roots, while the physical roots, even when existing in the North Karelian, are less important. The paganistic tradition is still widely dismissed in mainly Lutheran Finland, and even today Akka-Koli, one of the peaks of the Koli mountains, is marked with a Lutheran cross. The old cross was replaced with a new one in , but there were no discussions between the church and the people practising other beliefs. This irritated those who maintain the pagan tradition today. This act serves as an example of how pagan traditions and shamanism are still largely ignored or seen as forbidden. In this environment, the cave offers a place where spirituality can be expressed and practised freely. When the researcher asked the practitioner if Pirunkirkko seemed to include any special dimension that would make the drumming in the cave more rewarding, they described how the drumming induced altered states of consciousness or, as it is also called, the shamanic consciousness. While the cave offers the ritual some power, the practitioner gives back something in exchange through drumming. There seems to be some form of mutual transaction between the human and other-than-human aspects of the natural environment, or nature, that is mediated by the drum. Even though in the interview, the practitioner pointed out that they did not need to drum in Pirunkirkko, it was later on noted that they nonetheless most of the time did enter the cave with a drum. Later, when asked separately, the practitioner pointed out that they were unaware of any special acoustic phenomenon when drumming and singing within the cave. Moreover, the participant did not have any particular melody that they would use, but they would sing intuitively whatever felt like it needed to come out personal communication with the practitioner in May In the analysis, the mutual transaction between the human and other-than-human participants becomes important as it offers the practitioner a meaningful dialogue that cannot perhaps be reached in this form anywhere else. Resonance is not an unusual phenomenon. Resonances or room modes are commonly found in relatively small, built-up spaces with hard and smooth parallel surfaces, such as living rooms, bedrooms, and bathrooms Everest, , pp. However, they are rarer or even surprising in natural environments where shapes are mostly uneven and asymmetrical. The distinct resonance in the Pirunkirkko cave is caused by the long, high, and extremely narrow inner corridor where the rock walls are unusually smooth and parallel. Such a distinctive, distinguishable resonance is not an obvious phenomenon in all caves. We did not observe any resonance in the middle corridor of Pirunkirkko, neither in the neighbouring caves in the Kirkkokallio and Repouuro areas, nor in any of the randomly tested Finnish caves, whether of the crevice or boulder type. In standard room acoustics, resonances are generally avoided because the amplification of specific frequencies is thought to interfere with listening to music Everest, , pp. However, research in the field of archaeoacoustics has shown that in cultures of the past, views and preferences may have been different. In Malta, it appears that an entire underground temple was modified to produce a specific series of resonant tones Wolfe et al. These studies suggest that the physical space was supposed to be somehow involved in ritual sound or music making, to make a contribution to them. Based on the ethnographic archival sources, Pirunkirkko was a place to contact the spirit world and negotiate with the various spirits, devils, and elves living inside the Koli mountains. The resonance phenomenon must have been present in these ritual encounters, because they were loud and contained sonic elements suitable for excitation. The sages made many instantaneous impulse-like noises: they shouted, raged, jumped, trampled, shot with a gun, and struck the rock with various objects. If the sages made a rhythmic sequence out of the noises, the cave formed a continuous tone that hummed in the background for as long as the stimuli lasted. The cave seemed to recommend this one single tone as the right level to tune oneself. If the sages or the patients started humming the same tone, the experience could be reminiscent of modern sound therapy, where simple humming, so-called toning, is used to relieve stress and create balance and harmony e. Furthermore, listening to or humming the same stable tone, in an underground natural resonator, could evoke images of restored peace and order or constructive reciprocal interaction with the spirit world. Such imagery was needed to provide the sick with experiences of healing, as sicknesses were traditionally thought to be caused by imbalances or disturbances with the spirits in the environment Haavio, , p. The purpose of the healing ritual was to restore order and mend the relations between the worlds. As for the performance of the contemporary shamanic practitioner, the audio analysis of the field recording proves that the resonance phenomenon is present in the ritual. These frequencies overlap with the natural frequency of the cave mixing with it. Thus, using this type of sonorous drum, space-related resonance is difficult to detect. However, in connection with drumming, the practitioner also sings a melody consisting mainly of three different tones. Surprisingly, the middle tone is practically the same as the natural frequency of the cave. The plots in Figure 8 show that the amplitude — sound pressure level — is higher during this tone than during the other tones. This higher volume suggests that the middle tone of the melody excites the resonance phenomenon at the back of the cave and is amplified by it. The practitioner and the microphones were situated on the ledge at the back of the Pirunkirkko cave. Given all this, it seems strange that the local folklore or the interviewed practitioner does not say anything about the resonance or other acoustic phenomena in the Pirunkirkko cave. Although soft, the ringing tone is audible. However, it must be remembered that people, as a rule, make observations and interpretations of the environment from their own perspectives, personal experiences, and cultural frameworks of thought. While making the acoustic measurements in the cave, we focused on listening to the impulse response of the space, expecting to find something like resonance. The ritual practitioners of the last centuries did not think about acoustics, but focused on encountering spirits, devils, or elves and solving serious problems with them. Because ethnographic records from Koli and throughout the country say that the spirits primarily expressed themselves aurally — vocalising, humming, hissing, mumbling, or thundering e. Most logically, this perception consisted of strange, inexplicable sound coming from an ambiguous or unspecified source. These characteristics match with resonance, reverberation, and other reflection-based phenomena. Thus, acousmatic beings and acoustic phenomena are conceptually not so far from each other. Similarly, the contemporary ritual practitioner focused on the religious experience, paying more attention to internal sensations than external reality. As sound itself is a manifestation of energy, the drumming and singing practitioner and the cave responding to them are literally and factually exchanging energies with each other. While writing this article, we contacted the interviewed practitioner again asking whether the pitches, scale, and melody used in their ritual were pre-planned or freely improvised. The practitioner answered that they did not have any particular melody to use within the cave, but would intuitively sing whatever needed to come out. This may have happened instinctively and unconsciously. Moreover, the resonance may have influenced the altered states of consciousness sought in the cave. If the resonant tone was associated with this hallucination and possibly even induced it, it is no wonder that Pirunkirkko was regarded as an effective place for reaching the shamanic consciousness. Although the Pirunkirkko cave in Koli is a relatively recent site, it can provide new information or insights for archaeologists, who work on natural and built spaces dated to much more distant times. First, our study of Pirunkirkko brings out a previously less studied acoustic phenomenon, particularly associated with cracks, crevices, ravines, and corridors, and introduces a set of rigorous archaeoacoustic methods for studying such places. Second, the versatile archival and interview materials of the study provide an example of the sensory experiences, beliefs, and practices that may have been associated with these places, as well as the interaction between the cultural phenomena and the acoustic properties of the spaces. Our audio analysis indicates that the Pirunkirkko cave, a traditional meeting place for sages, has a distinct acoustic characteristic. This tone stays audible after loud instantaneous broadband noises, such as balloon pops, hand claps, and drumbeats. Alternatively, the ringing tone can be excited by singing at the same frequency or one of its integer multiples. This resonance phenomenon must have been present in the historical rituals performed in the cave, because the ethnographic record shows that they were full of loud impulse-like noises. The sages shouted, jumped, trampled, shot with a gun, and struck the rock with various objects. The cave responds to one of the three sung tones — the one matching the resonant frequency — by amplifying it throughout the singing. The seasons do not seem to have an effect on the phenomenon, as it is repeated in recordings made in March, July, and September. Such a distinctive resonance is perhaps one of the reasons why Pirunkirkko has become important to the historical sages and contemporary practitioners as well as all those who have used the place over time. In such acoustics, people do not perform their rituals alone, but in interaction and cooperation with the physical space and natural environment. The resonance provides a means of deep connection and transaction with some kind of other-than-human participant or agent, signalling their presence and existence. One of the most intriguing aspects of this study is that the local folklore or the interviewed practitioner does not mention the resonant tone at all. These expressions might be considered as alternative cross-sensory characterisations for the inexplicable acoustics phenomenon, or the discreet elusive effects that resonance adds to a sonic performance or ritual. Thus, the study of acoustics gives new tools for examining and understanding the religious beliefs and experiences reported in Pirunkirkko and similar places. In addition, the study illustrates how cultural frameworks of thought guide our sensory perceptions leading to different experiences and interpretations. In addition, special thanks to Julia for the photos. Funding information: The research described in the article was funded by the Academy of Finland Grant number Author contributions: R. The manuscript was written together. We applied the SDC approach for the sequence of authors. Informed consent : Informed consent has been obtained from all individuals included in this study. Data availability statement : The acoustic data that support the findings of this study are available from Fairdata IDA storage service, but restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under license for the current study, and so are not publicly available. Data are however available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The highly sensitive interview material is not publicly available. A glimpse behind closed doors: Alfred L. Kroeber and the representation of native Californian music. History and Anthropology, 34 3 , — Search in Google Scholar. Blom, J. 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The frequency spectrum and geometry of the Hal Saflieni Hypogeum appear tuned. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 34, 1—7. Znamenski, A. The beauty of the primitive: Indigenous Shamanism and Western imagination. New York: Oxford University Press. Your purchase has been completed. Your documents are now available to view. Purchase article. From the journal Open Archaeology. Download article PDF. Supplementary Materials Cite this Share this. Keywords: archaeoacoustics ; resonance ; caves ; vernacular healing tradition ; contemporary shamanism. Figure 1. Figure 2. Ground plan of the Pirunkirkko cave at Kirkkokallio, Koli. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 7. Figure 8. Hz hertz. Received: Revised: Accepted: Published Online: This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4. Cite this article. Open Archaeology , 9 1 , Open Archaeology, Vol. Open Archaeology. Copied to clipboard. Copy to clipboard. Share this article. Supplementary Materials Supplementary material. Please login or register with De Gruyter to order this product. Register Log in. Volume 9 Issue 1. This issue. All issues. Articles in the same Issue Regular Articles. On Class and Elitism in Archaeology. Review Article. Commentary Article. Paradise Found or Common Sense Lost? Motorways of Prehistory? Boats, Rivers and Moving in Mesolithic Ireland. The Blurry Third Millennium. Movement or Diaspora? Transport, Interaction, and Connectivity. One, Two, Three! Can Everybody Hear Me? Acoustics of Roman Contiones. Music and Storytelling at Rock Art Sites? Synopsis of a Treasure. Downloaded on
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