Pregnant Rape

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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8765248
Перевести · Results: The national rape-related pregnancy rate is 5.0% per rape among victims of reproductive age (aged 12 to 45); among adult women an estimated 32,101 pregnancies result from rape each year. …
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy_from_rape
Pregnancy from rape is an ethical and moral issue in the context of opposition to legal abortion. In recent decades, claims of the improbability of rape-induced pregnancy, reminiscent of historical beliefs, have again begun to play a role in political discourse surrounding abortion regulation in cases of rape, particularly in the United States.

Among …
Pregnancy from rape is an ethical and moral issue in the context of opposition to legal abortion. In recent decades, claims of the improbability of rape-induced pregnancy, reminiscent of historical beliefs, have again begun to play a role in political discourse surrounding abortion regulation in cases of rape, particularly in the United States.

Among female victims of partner violence who filed a protective order, 68% reported they were raped by their intimate partner and 20% reported a rape-related pregnancy.

Claims that rape reduces the chance of pregnancy have at times been made by referring to the fact that chronic stress can reduce a woman's fertility over a long term. However the current scientific consensus is that this is specific to long-term stress—the acute stress reaction that occurs during rape cannot "shut down ovulation that has already begun". In a 1972 article, physician and anti-abortion activist Fred Mecklenburg argued that pregnancy from rape is "extremely rare", adding that a woman exposed to the trauma of rape "will not ovulate even if she is 'scheduled' to". Blythe Bernhard wrote in The Washington Post, "That article has influenced two generations of anti-abortion activists with the hope to build a medical case to ban all abortions without any exception." John C. Willke, a former president of the National Right to Life Committee and a general practitioner with training in obstetrics, has published similar statements since 1985. In a 2012 interview he said, "This is a traumatic thing – she's, shall we say, she's uptight. She is frightened, tight, and so on. And sperm, if deposited in her vagina, are less likely to be able to fertilize. The tubes are spastic." These assertions were disputed by a number of gynecology professors. A 1997 book published by the group Human Life International (which opposes legal abortion in all cases, including rape) claims that several studies performed in the 1970s show that only 0.08% of rapes result in pregnancy, and alternatively offers an estimate of 0.8% from other data. The same book dismisses contrary statistics, claiming that "the women who obtain abortions for 'rape' are almost always lying".

Related views have also been expressed by pro-life groups outside the United States. The United Kingdom pro-life group Society for the Protection of Unborn Children similarly claims that rape-pregnancy is "extremely rare", in part because the "trauma of being raped makes it difficult for fertilisation or implantation to occur". The Irish pro-life group Youth Defence published claims on its web site that "trauma from the rape may bring into play some natural defence mechanisms that reduce the likelihood of pregnancy", but removed these statements in 2012 following the Akin controversy, explaining that the group now deemed them "unreliable". The Irish group Precious Life published claims that "the trauma of sexual assault is likely to inhibit ovulation" and "the rate of pregnancy arising from sexual assault is 0.1%". Other groups that say rape prevents ovulation include the Australian group Pro-Life Victoria, and the group Pro-Life Philippines. The Austrian group Jugend für das Leben (Youth for Life) writes that "pregnancies after rape are extremely rare" because "protective mechanisms" from the stress of rape will "almost always prevent conception".

In the US, several politicians in the Republican Party have advanced claims that pregnancy from rape is rare. Pennsylvania state representative Stephen Freind claimed in 1988 that the odds of a pregnancy resulting from rape were "one in millions and millions and millions". James Leon Holmes published a letter in 1980 stating, "concern for rape victims is a red herring because conceptions from rape occur with approximately the same frequency as snowfall in Miami". Holmes apologized for this remark in 2003 after he was nominated as a United States federal judge. (He was confirmed in 2004). In 1995, North Carolina House of Representatives member Henry Aldridge remarked during a debate to eliminate a state abortion fund for poor women: "The facts show that people who are raped – who are truly raped – the juices don't flow, the body functions don't work and they don't get pregnant. Medical authorities agree that this is a rarity, if ever." In 1998, Arkansas state senator Fay Boozman lost a campaign for a US Senate seat after remarking that fear-induced hormonal changes made rape victims unlikely to become pregnant. He later apologized and eventually called the claim a mistake, but the controversy was renewed in 1999 when he was appointed director of the Arkansas Department of Health by then-governor Mike Huckabee. During his campaign in the 2012 United States Senate election in Missouri, US Representative Todd Akin commented on abortion exceptions for rape victims: "I understand from doctors, that's really rare. If it's a legitimate rape, the female body has ways to try to shut that whole thing down." The comment was widely criticized, and Akin apologized, saying he "misspoke". Akin's suggestion that rape is unlikely to result in pregnancy was defended by some prominent individuals and groups which oppose legal abortion. A SurveyUSA poll one day after Akin's comments reported that 76% of Missouri adults disagreed with Akin, 13% agreed with the statement and 11% were unsure (±3.8%).
https://www.jognn.org/article/S0884-2175(15)33527-9/fulltext
Перевести · 01.01.1998 · A woman pregnant as a result of rape faces the same three resolution options as any other pregnant woman: abortion, adoption, or parenthood. …
https://blog.pregistry.com/pregnancy-after-rape
Перевести · 09.11.2018 · Myth: Women who are pregnant from a rape have to agonize over how the mental and physical health of their attacker might affect their baby. …
Беременность в результате изнасилования
По данным современных научных исследований, вероятность наступления беременности в результате изнасилования женщины — примерно такая же, как при добровольном половом акте. Но на протяжении столетий господствовали ошибочные представления об этом, и большинство европейских учёных и юристов считали, что при изнасиловании наступление беременности очень маловероятно, либо вообще невозможно. В средневековой Европе вплоть до начала XVIII века мужчина, обвиняемый в изнасиловании, мог использовать беременность потерпевшей как аргумент в пользу своей невиновности, потому что считалось, что если женщина забеременела — значит, она получала удовольствие от секса, и, следовательно, добровольно согласилась на это. Но и в XX—XXI веке отдельные противники абортов, например, Тодд Акин, продолжали утверждать подобное и выступали за полный запрет прерывания беременности даже в случае изнасилования.
https://www.epm.org/resources/2010/Feb/20/what-about-woman-who-pregnant-due-rape-or-incest
Перевести · 20.02.2010 · Their frequent references to rape during discussions of the abortion issue leaves the false impression that pregnancy due to rape is common. 2. Rape is never the fault of the child; the guilty party, not an innocent party, should be punished. In those rare cases when a pregnancy …
https://thefederalist.com/2019/05/22/rape-victims-say-pregnancies
Перевести · 22.05.2019 · Consider the Rwandan genocide where mass rapes occurred— one estimate being over 200,000 women raped and approximately 20,000 pregnancies …
https://www.imdb.com/search/keyword/?keywords=pregnant-from-rape
Перевести · Adam and Zooey have been trying to have a baby for several months, only to end up pregnant after a rape. Unsure of the parentage of their …
https://healthresearchfunding.org/18-profound-statistics-rape-victims-getting-pregnant
Перевести · The figures about women becoming pregnant from rape are all about 20 years old, but there isn’t any new data that has been published since. 8. A separate study on regular sexual intercourse found that having unprotected sex had a 3.1% chance of producing a pregnancy.
https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/news/pregnant-woman-raped-filmed-1982085
Перевести · 21.10.2020 · A pregnant woman in Noakhali's Senbagh was raped by a man and filmed by his associates on October 9, just five days after the Begumganj rape. …
https://madworldnews.com/mom-12-daughter-raped-pregnant
Перевести · 05.04.2017 · Suspecting that she was pregnant, a 12-year-old girl went to her doctor where she was confirmed to be carrying a child. …
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Pregnancy is a potential result of rape. It has been studied in the context of war, particularly as a tool for genocide, as well as other unrelated contexts, such as rape by a stranger, statutory rape, incest, and underage pregnancy. The current scientific consensus is that rape is at least as likely to lead to pregnancy as consensual sexual intercourse, with some studies suggesting rape may actually result in higher rates of pregnancy than consensual intercourse.[1][2][3]
Rape can cause difficulties during and after pregnancy, with potential negative consequences for both the victim and a resulting child. Medical treatment following a rape includes testing for, preventing, and managing pregnancy. A woman who becomes pregnant after a rape may face a decision about whether to raise the child, to make an adoption plan, or to have an abortion. In some countries where abortion is illegal after rape and incest, over 90% of pregnancies in girls age 15 and under are due to rape by family members.[4]
The false belief that pregnancy can almost never result from rape was widespread for centuries. In Europe, from medieval times well into the 18th century a man could use a woman's pregnancy as a legal defense to "prove" that he could not have raped her, since her pregnancy was thought to mean that she had enjoyed the sex and, therefore, consented to it. In recent decades, some anti-abortion organizations and politicians (such as Todd Akin) who oppose legal abortion in cases of rape have advanced claims that pregnancy very rarely arises from rape, and that the practical relevance of such exceptions to abortion law is, therefore, limited or non-existent.[5][6][7]
Estimates of the numbers of pregnancies from rape vary widely.[8][9] Recent estimates suggest that rape conception happens between 25,000 and 32,000 times each year in the U.S. In a 1996 three-year longitudinal study of 4,000 American women, physician Melisa Holmes estimated from data from her study that forced sexual intercourse causes over 32,000 pregnancies in the United States each year.[10] Physician Felicia H. Stewart and economist James Trussell estimated that the 333,000 assaults and rapes reported in the US in 1998 caused about 25,000 pregnancies, and up to 22,000 of those pregnancies could have been prevented by prompt medical treatment, such as emergency contraception.[11]
A 1996 study of 44 cases of rape-related pregnancy estimated that in the United States, the pregnancy rate is 5.0% per rape among victims of reproductive age (aged 12 to 45).[10][12] A 1987 study also found a 5% pregnancy rate from rape among 18- to 24-year-old college students in the US.[13] A 2005 study placed the rape-related pregnancy rate at around 3–5%.[14]
A study of Ethiopian adolescents who reported being raped found that 17% subsequently became pregnant,[15] and rape crisis centres in Mexico reported the figure the rate of pregnancy from rape at 15–18%.[16] Estimates of rape-related pregnancy rates may be inaccurate since the crime is under-reported, resulting in some pregnancies from rape not being recorded as such,[14] or alternately, social pressure may mean some rapes are not reported if no pregnancy results.
Although most studies suggest that conception rates are independent of whether insemination is due to rape or consensual sex,[17] some analysts have suggested that the rate of conception may be higher,[18][19][20][21] or lower,[22][23][24] from insemination due to rape.
Psychologist Robert L. Smith states that some studies have reported "unusually high rates of conception following rape".[18] He cites a paper by C.A. Fox and Beatrice Fox, reporting that biologist Alan Sterling Parkes had speculated in personal correspondence that "there is a high conception rate in rape, where hormonal release, due to fear or anger, could produce reflex ovulation".[19] Smith also cites veterinary scientist Wolfgang Jöchle, who "proposed that rape may induce ovulation in human females".[20][21] Literary scholar Jonathan Gottschall and economist Tiffani Gottschall argued in a 2003 Human Nature article that previous studies of rape-pregnancy statistics were not directly comparable to pregnancy rates from consensual intercourse, because the comparisons were largely uncorrected for such factors as the use of contraception. Adjusting for these factors, they estimated that rapes are about twice as likely to result in pregnancies (7.98%) as "consensual, unprotected penile-vaginal intercourse" (2–4%). They discuss a variety of possible explanations and advance the hypothesis that rapists tend to target victims with biological "cues of high fecundity" or subtle indications of ovulation.[3]
In contrast, psychologists Tara Chavanne and Gordon Gallup Jr., citing unpublished dissertations by Rogel[23] and Morgan,[24] argued that female adaptations reduce the likelihood of rape during fertile periods.[22] A 1995 study of women who became pregnant after rape found that 60% had been impregnated by a sexual partner during consensual intercourse.[12] Anthropologist Daniel Fessler disputed these findings, saying, "analysis of conception rates reveals that the probability of conception following rape does not differ from that following consensual coitus".[17]
Sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists have hypothesized that causing pregnancy by rape may be a mating strategy in humans, as a way for males to ensure the survival of their genes by passing them on to future generations.[25] Randy Thornhill and Craig T. Palmer are key popularizers of this hypothesis. They assert that most rape victims are women of childbearing age and that many cultures treat rape as a crime against the victim's husband. They state that rape victims suffer less emotional distress when they are subjected to more violence, and that married women and women of childbearing age experience greater psychological distress after a rape than do girls, single women or post-menopausal women.[26] Rape-pregnancy rates are crucial in evaluating these theories, because a high or low pregnancy rate from rape would determine whether such adaptations are favored or disfavored by natural selection.[3]
In 1995–96, the journal Family Planning Perspectives published a study by the Guttmacher Institute, a sexual health research and policy organization, on statutory rape (sexual intercourse with a minor) and resulting pregnancies. It drew on other research[27][28] to conclude that "at least half of all babies born to minor women are fathered by adult men", and that "although relatively small proportions of 13–14-year-olds have had intercourse, those who become sexually active at an early age are especially likely to have experienced coercive sex: Seventy-four percent of women who had intercourse before age 14 and 60% of those who had sex before age 15 report having had a forced sexual experience". Because of difficulties in bringing such cases to trial, however, "data from the period 1975–1978 ... indicate that, on average, only 413 men were arrested annually for statutory rape in California, even though 50,000 pregnancies occurred among underage women in 1976 alone".[29] In that state, it was found that two thirds of babies born to school-age mothers were fathered by adult men.[27]
Sexual abuse early in life can lead young women to feel a lack of control over their sexual lives, decrease their future likelihood of using contraceptives such as condoms, and increase their chances of becoming pregnant or acquiring sexually transmitted infections.[16] A 2007 paper by Child Trends[30] examined studies from 2000 to 2006 to identify links between sexual abuse and teenage pregnancy, starting with Blinn-Pike et al.'s 2002 metastudy of 15 studies since 1989.[31] It found that childhood sexual abuse has a "significant association" with adolescent pregnancy. Direct connections have been demonstrated both by retrospective studies examining antecedents to reported pregnancies and prospective studies, which track the lives of sex abuse victims and "can be helpful for determining causality".[30]:3 The more severe forms of abuse, such as rape and incest, entail a greater risk of adolescent pregnancy.[30]:4[32][33] Although some researchers suggest that pregnancy could be a choice made to escape a "bad situation", it may also be "a direct result of unwanted intercourse", which one study found to be the case for about 13% of participants in a Texas parenting program.[30]:4[34]
In Nicaragua, between 2000 and 2010, around 172,500 births were recorded for girls under 14, representing around 13% of the 10.3 million births during that period. These were attributed to poverty, laws forbidding abortion for rape and incest, lack of access to justice, and beliefs held in the culture and legal system.[4][35] A 1992 study in Peru found that 90% of babies delivered to mothers aged 12–16 were conceived through rape, typically by a father, stepfather, or other close relative.[4][36] In 1991 in Costa Rica, the figure was similar, with 95% of adolescent mothers under 15 having become pregnant through rape.[4][37]
Many of the youngest documented birth mothers in history experienced precocious puberty and were impregnated as a result of rape, including incest. The youngest, Peruvian Lina Medina, was impregnated when she was four and had a live birth in 1939, at age five.[38]
Rape has been used as a weapon of psychological warfare for centu
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