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Перевести · PINHOLES are small craters which form in the applied product during the drying process and which, apart from an …
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Стеноп
Ориентировочное время чтения: 3 мин
Стено́п (от фр. Sténopé) — фотографический аппарат без объектива, роль которого выполняет малое отверстие . В современной фотографии также распространено название «пинхол» (англ. pinhole от pin «булавка» + hole «отверстие»). Также встречается термин «лох-камера» или «лохкамера» (нем. Lochkamera от Loch «отверстие» + Kamera «камера»).
Вычисление относительного отверстия
Стено́п — фотографический аппарат без объектива, роль которого выполняет малое отверстие. В современной фотографии также распространено название «пинхол». Также встречается термин «лох-камера» или «лохкамера».
Weekend Project: Pinhole Panoramic Camera
Photography Tips Techniques : How to Make a Pinhole Camera
Перевести · The pinhole camera (Engl.), Lochkamera (Germ.) or camera obscura (Ital.) is a rural tool for the basic (central) projection (to an image) of any motive (interesting to the human …
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinhole
Ориентировочное время чтения: 8 мин
Опубликовано: 17.12.2018
Holes is a book. Holes can occur for a number of reasons, including natural processes and intentional actions by humans or animals. Holes in the ground that are made intentionally, such as holes made while searching for food, for replanting trees, or postholes made for securing an object, are usually made through the process of digging. Unintentional holes in an object are often a sign of damage. Potholes and sinkholes can damage human settlements.
Holes is a book. Holes can occur for a number of reasons, including natural processes and intentional actions by humans or animals. Holes in the ground that are made intentionally, such as holes made while searching for food, for replanting trees, or postholes made for securing an object, are usually made through the process of digging. Unintentional holes in an object are often a sign of damage. Potholes and sinkholes can damage human settlements.

Holes can occur in a wide variety of materials, and at a wide range of scales. The smallest holes observable by humans include pinholes and perforations, but the smallest phenomenon described as a hole is an electron hole, which is a position in an atom or atomic lattice where an electron is missing. The largest phenomenon described as a hole is a supermassive black hole, an astronomical object which can be billions of times more massive than Earth's sun.

The deepest hole on Earth is the man-made Kola Superdeep Borehole, with a true vertical drill-depth of more than 7.5 miles (12 kilometers), which is only a fraction of the nearly 4,000 mile (6,400 kilometer) distance to the center of the Earth.

Mathematical and scientific senses
Holes in mathematics
In mathematics, holes are examined in a number of ways. One of these is in homology, which is a general way of associating certain algebraic objects to other mathematical objects such as topological spaces. Homology groups were originally defined in algebraic topology, and homology was originally a rigorous mathematical method for defining and categorizing holes in a mathematical object called a manifold. The initial motivation for defining homology groups was the observation that two shapes can be distinguished by examining their holes. For instance, a circle is not a disk because the circle has a hole through it while the disk is solid, and the ordinary sphere is not a circle because the sphere encloses a two-dimensional hole while the circle encloses a one-dimensional hole. However, because a hole is "not there", it is not immediately obvious how to define a hole or how to distinguish different types of hole.

In geometric topology, however, holes are determined differently. In this field, the genus of a connected, orientable surface is an integer representing the maximum number of cuttings along non-intersecting closed simple curves without rendering the resultant manifold disconnected. In layman's terms, it is the number of "holes" an object has ("holes" interpreted in the sense of doughnut holes; a hollow sphere would be considered as having zero holes in this sense). A doughnut, or torus, has 1 such hole. A sphere has 0.

Holes in physics
In physics, antimatter is pervasively described as a hole, a location that, when brought together with ordinary matter to fill the hole, results in both the hole and the matter cancelling each-other out. This is analogous to patching a pothole with asphalt, or filling a bubble below the surface of water with an equal amount of water to cancel it out. The most direct example is the electron hole; a fairly general theoretical description is provided by the Dirac sea, which treats positrons (or anti-particles in general) as holes. Holes provide one of the two primary forms of conduction in a semi-conductor, that is, the material from which transistors are made; without holes, current could not flow, and transistors turn on and off by enabling or disabling the creation of holes.

Holes in biology
Animal bodies tend to contain specialized holes which serve various biological functions, such as the intake of oxygen or food, the excretion of waste, and the intake or expulsion of other fluids for reproductive purposes. In some simple animals, however, there is a single hole that serves all of these purposes. The formation of holes is a significant event in the development of an animal:

All animals start out in development with one hole, the blastopore. If there are two holes, the second hole forms later. The blastopore can arise at the top or the bottom of the embryo.

Gramicidin A, a polypeptide with a helical shape, has been described as a portable hole. When it forms a dimer, it can embed itself in cellular bilayer membranes and form a hole through which water molecules can pass.

Engineering senses
Blind holes and through holes
In engineering, machining, and tooling, a hole may be a blind hole or a through hole (also called a thru-hole or clearance hole). A blind hole is a hole that is reamed, drilled, or milled to a specified depth without breaking through to the other side of the workpiece. A through hole is a hole that is made to go completely through the material of an object. In other words, a through hole is a hole that goes all the way through something. Taps used for through holes are generally tapered since it will tap faster and the chips will be released when the tap exits the hole.

The etymology of the blind hole is that it is not possible to see through it. It may also refer to any feature that is taken to a specific depth, more specifically referring to internally threaded hole (tapped holes). Not considering the drill point, the depth of the blind hole, conventionally, may be slightly deeper than that of the threaded depth.

There are three accepted methods of threading blind holes:
1. Conventional tapping, especially with bottom taps
2. Single-point threading, where the workpiece is rotated, and a pointed cutting tool is fed into the workpiece at the same rate as the pitch of the internal thread. Single-pointing inside a blind hole, like boring inside one, is inherently more challenging than doing so in a through hole. This was especially true in the era when manual machining was the only method of control. Today, CNC makes these tasks less stressful, but nevertheless still more challenging than with through holes.
3. Helical interpolation, where the workpiece remains stationary and Computer Numerical Control (CNC) moves a milling cutter in the correct helical path for a given thread, milling the thread.

At least two U.S. tool manufacturers have manufactured tools for thread milling in blind holes: Ingersoll Cutting Tools of Rockford, Illinois, and Tooling Systems of Houston, Texas, who introduced the Thread Mill in 1977, a device that milled large internal threads in the blind holes of oil well blowout preventers. Today many CNC milling machines can run such a thread milling cycle (see a video of such a cut in the "External links" section).

One use of through holes in electronics is with through-hole technology, a mounting scheme involving the use of leads on the components that are inserted into holes drilled in printed circuit boards (PCB) and soldered to pads on the opposite side either by manual assembly (hand placement) or by the use of automated insertion mount machines.

Pinholes
A pinhole is a small hole, usually made by pressing a thin, pointed object such as a pin through an easily penetrated material such as a fabric or a very thin layer of metal. Similar holes made by other means are also often called pinholes. Pinholes may be intentionally made for various reasons. For example, in optics pinholes are used as apertures to select certain rays of light. This is used in pinhole cameras to form an image without the use of a lens. Pinholes on produce packaging have been used to control the atmosphere and relative humidity within the packaging.

In many fields, however, pinholes are a harmful and unwanted side-effect of manufacturing processes. For example, in the assembly of microcircuits, pinholes in the dielectric insulator layer coating the circuit can cause the circuit to fail. Therefore, "[t]o avoid pinholes that might protrude through the entire thickness of the dielectric layer, it is a common practice to screen several layers of dielectric with drying and firing after each screening", thereby preventing the pinholes from becoming continuous.
Перевести · 4 pinhole photos taken with a Reality So Subtle 6×6.2x The Hague (The Netherlands) and 2x Antwerp (Belgium) http://www.genster.nl.
Перевести · Your eyes will therefore become lazy and weaker with time Pinhole glasses are an alternative to your conventional glasses providing clear vision as well as an effective system of …
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News > Pin-holes, what they are and how to prevent them.
PINHOLES are small craters which form in the applied product during the drying process and which, apart from an aesthetic problem, can also cause functional difficulties, especially in waterproof membranes as they can adversely affect the resistance and efficiency of the coating.  
When membranes are applied which contain solvents it is important to apply thin coats to prevent the appearance of pin-holes. The reason for this is that solvents are very volatile and tend to rise once the membrane has been applied. With a thin coat this is not a problem; the solvents will evaporate more, but if the coat is very thick, apart from a greater concentration of solvents, they will not have time to escape and will remain trapped inside the membrane forming bubbles in the surface. In some cases these bubbles may actually break through the surface, causing the appearance of pin-holes. 
In the case of DESMOPOL polyurethane membrane, we can completely eliminate the risk of the appearance of pin-holes or bubbling with the addition of DESMOPLUS. This additive allows the application of DESMOPOL in a single coat with the desired thickness, producing a completely smooth finish with no bubbling or pin-holes.
This same problem can occur if the product is foam based or contains air. This is usually due to over energetic stirring of the product. To prevent this we simply need to take the precaution of stirring the product on a slow speed and, if possible, with a basket shaped head.  
If one applies a polyurea or polyurethane membrane, using spraying equipment, directly onto an untreated or inadequately prepared surface, one is bound to end up with air trapped under the membrane. 
This air is less dense than the product which contains it, and while the latter is drying, the trapped air rises to the surface and may cause the feared pin-hole effect. 
This same phenomenon occurs when a primer is not applied or the coat is too thin or insufficient. 
With the application of hot membranes the drying process is much shorter, which might lead us to believe that the air would not have time to escape, however the membrane temperature in fact also warms the air, making it rise faster, also causing the pin-hole effect.
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